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Although president George W. Bush already enjoys “important person” status in terms of newsworthiness, his Thanksgiving visit to his troops in Baghdad Lamprecht, b:6 was a fail-safe move to ensure wide media coverage, especially because of the clandestine nature of the visit.

Figure 7. President Bush serves his troops Photo: Associated Press, a. Global coverage of Gulf War II shows clear differences in the news agendas. Figure 8. Newspapers of 22 March Newseum, Stories about subjects already in the news. Figure 9. The continued search for weapons of mass destruction Photo: CNN, She condensed and integrated these models into a detailed model of gatekeeping, which agreed with McNelly that news flow through various channels to news organisations, such as wire services, newspapers and television networks, where the messages are either rejected or selected and adapted before it is passed on to the next person or organisation.

Recognising the complexity of the gatekeeping process, Shoemaker acknowledged the distinct traits and characteristics of the gatekeeper — people in a news organisation who select and shape news messages, such as reporters, news editors, sub- editors and editors. Figure Intra-individual gatekeeping processes illustration redrawn as in Shoemaker, As seen in Figure 11, these reporters must comply with the limitations of their news routines, and with their employers’ priorities Shoemaker, For example, when veteran Washington Post reporter Walter Pincus questioned whether the US government had proof that Saddam was hiding weapons of mass destruction, his editors refused to publish his story and only did so when forced by assistant managing editor Bob Woodward Kurtz, Reporters accused the Washington Post of printing government views on the front page, while anything contradicting the administration was placed “on A18 on Sunday or A24 on Monday” Kurz, Gatekeeping within an organisation is embedded in communication organisational characteristics illustration redrawn as in Shoemaker, The demands of influential forces outside news organisations are equally important in news selection Shoemaker, In Iraq embedded reporters had to comply with the Pentagon ground rules, which prohibited the publication of information on e.

Because Fox News correspondent Geraldo Rivera broke these rules by drawing a map in the sand indicating his location with the st Airborne unit relatively to Baghdad, as well as their destination, he was asked by the Pentagon to voluntarily leave Iraq Plante, In this section of the model, Shoemaker also made provision for the “groupthink” phenomenon first described by psychologist Irving Janis in , who defined it as a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive group, when the members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.

This phenomenon is of particular interest in coverage of Operation Iraqi Freedom, as two prominent US newspapers, namely Washington Post Kurtz, and The New York Times both used the word “groupthink” when apologising for their erroneous reporting on weapons of mass destruction as justification for the war on Iraq.

As indicated in Figure 12, surviving news items that were fashioned to suit the needs and characteristics of the organisation, are subsequently either transmitted directly to the audience, or passed to a next news organisation, where it is subjected to a similar series of gatekeeping procedures Shoemaker, Gatekeeping between organisations is embedded in social system ideology and culture and is influenced by social and institutional factors illustration redrawn as in Shoemaker, The Sunday Times had their own unilateral reporter in Baghdad Schoonakker, , which cut down considerably the number of gates and the consequent sifting and alterations to the messages.

All the other newspapers, however, relied solely on agency material, which some newspapers adapted to their readership, while others, such as The Citizen, published wire reports without rewriting them.

As indicated by the feedback loops in Figure 12, news organisations do not act in isolation, but form part of the ideology and social system in which they function, and their news agenda is therefore subjected to sanctioning by their audience as representatives of this community Shoemaker, They are also under pressure from external institutions such as advertisers, shareholders, and government bodies. The extent of these pressures can best be illustrated by the dismissal of Pulitzer Prize winning news correspondent Peter Arnett by US broadcaster NBC after he made critical comments about the US war effort when interviewed on Iraqi television Sales, Initially NBC defended Arnett, but within 24 hours yielded to outside pressure to fire their only correspondent in Baghdad.

While one cannot allege that General Electric in any way perpetuated the war, it would not be unreasonable to assume that a company would strive to protect its relationship with such an important client Deserano, ; Ireland, Through selection and the assignment of salience by e.

This ability was first recognised by newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann, who referred to “the pictures in our heads” in his book Public Opinion Lippmann, : “The only feeling that anyone can have about an event he does not experience is the feeling aroused by his mental image of that event” — an image to a large extent created by the news media. This view was confirmed in by US sociologists Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton who referred to one of the mass media’s roles in society as “status- conferral” function, which means that the mass media confer status on public issues, persons, organizations, and social movements.

Common experience as well as research testifies that the social standing of persons or social policies is raised when these command favorable attention in the mass media Examining this idea in his book The press and foreign policy, which dealt with the media’s role in the foreign policy decision-making process, Bernard Cohen, a political scientist from the University of Wisconsin, observed that the press “may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” : It is here, in the description of the political environment and the suggestion of the policy alternatives that give the best promise of managing the environment, that we shall find the press playing such an important role in current thinking about foreign policy For most of the foreign policy audience, the really effective political map of the world — that is to say, their operational map of the world — is drawn by the reporter and the editor, not by the cartographer.

It must be noted that the term “agenda”, according to McCombs , is not intended to imply that a news organisation has a premeditated, often evil, “agenda” that it pursues relentlessly, but is merely a descriptive term, referring to the result over time of numerous day-to-day decisions by all the gatekeepers in a news organisation, from the reporter in the field to the sub-editor and the editor. That the line-up of issues on the public agenda was very similar to the line-up of issues that was in the new coverage of the previous month McCombs, According to McCombs newspapers provide various cues about the salience of a particular news event through the placement of a report on a page, the page it is printed on, and the size of the headline, for example.

When the same cues regarding the importance of an issue recur over a period of days, weeks, months, or even longer, it becomes possible to identify the agenda of a news organisation.

Since that first study almost four decades ago, and more than empirical studies later Weaver, , the agendasetting theory has expanded into five distinct stages McCombs, ; McCombs, The idea of first level agendasetting resulted from the theory initiated by McCombs and Shaw after their Chapel Hill research project which dealt with the prominence or salience of objects: “public issues, political candidates, other public figures.

It could be any set of objects that you might be interested in” McCombs, Other first level agendasetting studies include those by Winter and Eyal , Iyengar and Kinder , Eaton and Brosius and Kepplinger When people are in an unfamiliar situation, they experience a “need for orientation” which makes them turn to the news media to orient themselves McCombs, Highly knowledgeable people will be less likely to be influenced by the news agenda, but interested people who have little knowledge would have a strong need for orientation, resulting in a very strong correspondence between the media agenda and those people’s opinions about an issue.

In recent years, studies of agendasetting increasingly moved away from first level agendasetting, or the media telling the audience ”what to think about”, to focus on second level or attribute agendasetting, which means the media is telling the audience “how to think about” issues or objects Sheafer, Stated differently, while the first level of agendasetting refers to the transmission of object salience, a second level of agendasetting involves the transmission of attribute salience, which in fact may guide people in what to think McCombs, An “object” refers to for example topics, issues, and persons, which may each have various attributes, i.

Just as objects may be presented by the news media as more or less important, so too may attributes vary in salience, which makes them equally powerful as agendasetting tools.

Perhaps a quick way to summarize the difference between the basic agenda- setting effect, and what’s now come to be called attribute agendasetting, is in terms of Lippman’s phrase “the pictures in our heads”. The object agenda, in effect, says “What are the pictures about?

What are they pictures of? What does this really look like? Second level agendasetting studies e. Empirical studies, however, do not draw a clear distinction between cognitive and affective attributes Sheafer, Other recent studies on second level agendasetting include those by Scheufele , Golan and Wanta and Kiousis This means that the salience of an object or its attributes in the stories published by one medium will be mirrored by other media.

Once it became obvious that media reports influence the public’s perception of the importance of various issues, media researchers wanted to know who is responsible for the media’s agenda McCombs, This is a complex question with many answers: most importantly, the media’s agenda is shaped by news values and journalistic tradition.

The agenda is also shaped by outside influences, such as various sources: press spokespersons, government officials, politicians, and the ubiquitous public relations agencies. However, an agenda is also shaped by the whole mix of different media – the relationship that exists, for instance, between blogs and news media, both Internet and traditional Weaver Indiana University , Maxwell E. Although Weaver et al. Kinder associated the effects of television agendasetting with perceptions of the US President “in a demonstration of what some cognitive psychologists have called priming — making certain issues or attributes more salient and more likely to be accessed in forming opinions” Weaver, Priming is similar to first level agendasetting, but goes further by addressing the effect of these agendas on the audience’s perceptions of an issue Lee, It begs the question: “What are the consequences of creating these pictures in the public’s mind?

According to this view, people will therefore make evaluations or judgements based on what they regard as being more important, or what is discussed most in the media, as this information is the easiest to access. It must be noted that some authors disagree with the notion that priming is an extension of agendasetting, e. This relationship is apparent from McCombs’s definition, which describes framing as the selection of a restricted number of thematically related attributes for inclusion on the media agenda when a particular object is discussed.

A generally accepted definition of framing is, however, problematic. Although there exists abundant literature on framing — some articles are indexed in Communication Abstracts for the period to Weaver, — analysts differ in their interpretation of the concept when dealing with the different approaches to and theories of frames, framing devices, models of framing, framing analyses and framing effects Kinder, Rather, frame analyses are a number of related, even though sometimes partially incompatible methods for the analysis of discourses Scheufele, American sociologist Erving Goffman is one of the first scholars to define framing, which he explains as the many ways in which the media create the context within which the audience may “locate, perceive, identify and label” world affairs, in other words, to make sense of those events.

Columbia University Journalism and Sociology Professor Todd Gitlin points out that the largely invisible frames organises the world for journalists, who report on world events, by enabling them to quickly and routinely process large amounts of information. Conversely, frames also help the audience to understand the world. On the contrary, some form of media frame is essential to the understanding of the world — without it, much of what happens and what is said would remain “mere talk and incomprehensible sounds” Tuchman, Frames, then, define problems — determine what a causal agent is doing and costs and benefits, usually measured in terms of cultural values; diagnose causes — identify the forces creating the problem; make moral judgments — evaluate causal agents and their effects; and suggest remedies — offer and justify treatments for the problem and predict their likely effects.

In order to analyse frames present in coverage of Operation Iraqi Freedom, it is necessary to decide on an applicable frame.

This is rather problematic, as just like the definition of framing is vague in literature Scheufele, ; Hyun, ; Kinder, , so is the identification of frames: “We are not told how to identify a frame” Carvalho, This “conceptual conundrum” often leaves it to the researcher to “propose their own definition of frames and approaches to framing study before they begin their research” Hyun, Alternative frames are represented by a single presentation of a sentence or two, reminders of how an issue might be understood.

This study focuses on how international news flows and not on the effects of the news on the audience. Therefore, framing devices are particularly important to this research. Coalition forces were characterised as freedom loving, working hard to avoid civilian casualties and seeking to protect religious diversity Saddam Hussein and his sons, like a gang of Hollywood rustlers, were given forty eight hours to get out of town Knight, 1, There are many reasons for the use of the story frame in the production of news.

It is employed to attract attention by provoking feeling in the audience, “inducing him to feel a sense of personal identification” Lippmann, It is also a consequence of the mass media’s continuous need for more news Boorstin, To satisfy this need, “bogus dramas and humbug heroes” are created which spawn an “empty world of celebrity” Hanson, We expect new heroes every season, a literary masterpiece every month, a dramatic spectacular every week, a rare sensation every night Boorstin, Jamie Shea, NATO spokesman during the Balkan war, told business leaders in Switzerland, in a talk named Selling a conflict — the ultimate PR challenge, that he credited his successful media campaign in the Balkans to giving the public what they loved: “daily soap operas with good characters”.

Whenever things grew quiet on the war front, he used the time “to explain again who’s the good guy and who’s the bad guy”. The usefulness of the story frame was tested by Massachusetts Institute of Technology political scientist Alan J. Berinsky and Kinder in their study of the decision making process. They found that citizens understand particular event sequences when they can organize the relevant information into coherent stories.

Political leaders, analysts and government officials tend to frame their views and statements — to be transferred to the public through all the various sectors of mass media — with the audience in mind, thereby shaping the way the public process and store information that would contribute to their understanding of politics.

In a study on how people make sense of politics, Berinsky and Kinder found that when information is framed as a good story, the audience’s understanding of the data changes, which in turn appears to shape opinion. These frames do not need to present strong arguments for one side or another in order to change public opinion.

Small and subtle differences in the presentation of information can sometimes do the trick. Berinsky and Kinder declares that [a] good frame is at its heart a good story. To understand why some frames succeed and others fail, we need to understand what makes an effective story. According to Kinder [p]eople know what makes a good story, and this knowledge influences how they understand text and how they represent such text in their minds Evidence is unscrambled. Causal and intentional relations are established.

Gaps are filled. Plot turns are identified. Thus, the story frame is a useful device to create desired perceptions about current issues, and its utilisation as a strategic tool is advocated by US military scholars William Casebeer and James A. Because the story frame has become a weapon in the hands of government officials and military strategists who use the media to disseminate carefully constructed tales Payne, , it became imperative to determine what the elements of a good story are.

As such, Propp’s schema will be used in this study to demarcate the story frame to be used in the analysis of Operation Iraqi Freedom media coverage. He broke down folktales into their “small component parts” and identified eight character types Table 1 and 31 basic elements or “functions” Table 21, next page in the stories Propp, , Not all the elements were present in all the folktales, but those that were, always recurred in the same order. Table 1. Propp’s 31 basic functions Propp, 1.

One of the members of a family absents himself from home. An interdiction is addressed to the hero. The interdiction is violated 4. The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance. The villain receives information about his victim. The villain attempts to deceive his victim as to capture him or his belongings. The victim submits to deception and thereby unwittingly helps his enemy. The villain causes harm or injury to a member of a family.

One member of a family either lacks something or desires to have something. Misfortune or lack is made known; the hero is approached with a request or command; he is allowed to go or he is dispatched.

The seeker agrees to or decides upon counteraction. The hero leaves home. The hero is tested, which prepares him to receive either a magical agent or helper.

The hero acquires the use of a magical agent. The hero is transferred, delivered, or led to the whereabouts of an object of search. The hero and the villain join in direct combat. The hero is branded. The villain is defeated. The initial misfortune or lack is liquidated. The hero returns. The hero is pursued. Rescue of the hero from pursuit. The hero, unrecognized, arrives home or in another country.

A false hero presents unfounded claims. A difficult task is proposed to the hero. The task is resolved. The hero is recognized. The false hero or villain is exposed.

The hero is given a new appearance. The villain is punished. The hero is married and ascends the throne. When these elements are distilled into a simpler form, the most common story told is that of a villain who harms a victim, prompting the hero to go on a quest.

The hero receives a magic agent from a donor, which he uses to defeat the villain in order to right the initial wrong and ultimately to win the hand of the princess Propp, While these stories have enduring appeal as fairytales, they also form the backbone of popular cinema. During Operation Iraqi Freedom the author, as an ordinary member of the global audience, was struck by the strong “story-like” coverage by the media. In this case, President George W.

Bush is the indisputable hero. The Wall Street Journal described Bush as not only of strong moral character himself, but … he actually believes in things He sees rights and wrongs … and has a clear vision of what is and is not in America’s interest and does not hesitate to act accordingly Du Pont, In his January State of the Union address, Bush pledged: Whatever action is required, whenever action is necessary, I will defend the freedom and security of the American people Bush, a. Against the backdrop of a painting of Jesus, with his body- language mirroring that of the Saviour, Bush is by association framed as everything that is heroic, noble, good, fair, honest, and blameless Photo: Spiegel Online, According to White House spokesperson Ari Fleischer a , however, nobody, but nobody, is more reluctant to go to war than President Bush …He hopes it can be averted, but he is also clear about the fact that one way to save American lives is to prevent Saddam Hussein from engaging in something that can be far, far worse than the price we saw on September Despite this reluctance, Bush b told the press at his ranch in Texas: I’m going to continue doing the job the American people expect, which is to safeguard America and Americans My job is to protect the American people I’ve got my mind on the peace and security of the American people.

And I will do that Bush, c. For this, the US Senate and House of Representatives gave him the authority to take the necessary actions against international terrorists and terrorist organizations, including those nations, organizations or persons who planned, authorized, committed or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, or harbored such persons or organizations The White House, The villain.

Saddam Hussein is the villain in this tale, “the man who tried to kill my dad”, according to George W. Bush, referring to an alleged plot to assassinate Bush Senior in Kuwait in Lyon, With his dark suit, fedora and moustache, the gun-toting Saddam Hussein apparently fits in his frame as a Brando-esque villain Photo: CNN, His brutal rule includes slaughter, rape, mutilation and the destruction of families … Saddam is working feverishly to acquire nuclear weapons Perle, a.

Much the same images were portrayed during Gulf War I, when Saddam was referred to as a Hitler, a dictator, a military strongman, a madman who was a menace to world peace and the American way of life, a beast and a monster that Bush Senior had to destroy Kellner, The victim or princess. In his 7 October speech in Cincinnati Bush laid a perfect foundation for the future portrayal of the American nation as a victim in the Gulf War II “fairytale”, who must be saved from the villain.

In this speech, Bush reminded the American people of 11 September , when America felt its vulnerability — even to threats that gather on the other side of the earth. We resolved then, and we are resolved today, to confront every threat, from any source, that could bring sudden terror and suffering to America.

During Operation Iraqi Freedom, US government officials often reminded the American people of the tragedy of 11 September, thereby framing them as the victim: vulnerable and in need of a saviour Photo: New York Newsday, We know that the regime has produced thousands of tons of chemical agents, including mustard gas, sarin nerve gas, VX nerve gas.

Saddam Hussein also has experience in using chemical weapons. He warned that if Iraqi could obtain the smallest amount of enriched uranium, it could produce a nuclear weapon in less than a year: We’ve experienced the horror of September the 11th. We have seen that those who hate America are willing to crash airplanes into buildings full of innocent people. Our enemies would be no less willing, in fact, they would be eager, to use biological or chemical, or a nuclear weapon Bush, These views were repeated in January , when Bush again reminded the American people of their vulnerability and the threat Saddam posed: because of Al Qaeda connections, because of his history, he’s a danger to the American people, and we’ve got to deal with him before it is too late CBS, b.

The quest. Bush was quoted saying that Saddam was producing and hiding weapons that would enable him to dominate the region and intimidate “the civilized world — and we will not allow it” Bush, d.

Bush announced the start of the war from the Oval Office, and told his nation that his quest was to disarm Saddam in order to protect the Americans Photo: The Boston Globe, a. That duty falls to me as commander-in-chief by the oath I have sworn, by the oath I will keep.

The terrorist threat to America and the world will be diminished the moment that Saddam Hussein is disarmed Bush, e. The donor. The US government acted as the donor of the magic agent that helped the hero in his quest.

The US Congress recognised “the threat to [their] country” and “voted overwhelmingly … to support the use of force against Iraq” Bush, f. Fully supportive of the war, despite a few in-house squabbles, “the House and Senate have been doing more cheerleading than debating or legislating when it comes to war-related issues” since the bombs started exploding over Baghdad St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Congress exercised its war power “by building and maintaining the military through the budget — deciding what bombers to build and what tanks to buy”.

The reason given for this united front was that once U. Congress is not likely to leave them in a lurch St. In this instance, the US military acted as the magic agent provided by the government, the donor, to aid the hero in succeeding in his quest. This “magic agent” was described in the media as an “immense force” that Bush was about to unleash Walczak, , acting with “breathtaking precision, almost eyewatering speed, persistence, agility and lethality” Sullivan, a in order to “to disarm Iraq, to free its people and to defend the world from grave danger” Bush, g.

President Bush gives the thumbs-up sign to his troops, framed as the magic agent with which he planned to obliterate the villain Photo: The Boston Globe, b. The “peace of a troubled world” became the responsibility of the US military as Bush promised Saddam that he will use the “full force and might of the US military” against him, referring to the coalition troops, six carrier battle groups, and more than aircraft that were ready to “pummel Iraq” Walczak, As the offensive stages of the war drew to a close, Bush told the troops onboard USS Abraham Lincoln that we have fought for the cause of liberty and for the peace of the world.

Our nation and our coalition are proud of this accomplishment, yet it is you, the members of the United States military, who achieved it Because of you our Nation is more secure. Because of you the tyrant has fallen and Iraq is free Bush, h. The victory. This was the moment when the “magic agent” brought the evil villain to a fall in a scene rich in symbolism: the US tanks rolling up to the statue on the Al Firdos square, a Marine covering the face of Saddam with the American flag, then removing it to replace it with the Iraqi flag, the Iraqis trying but not succeeding to pull down the statue, the US Marines coming to the rescue, the giant Saddam that dominated the scene bowing to the American forces, falling, and ultimately revealing that it is nothing but an empty shell.

The fall of this last statue became symbolic of the fall of the Iraqi government, even though Saddam himself had not been captured at that stage CNN, c.

When asked by the media when the instant of victory might come, the reply was: “I think we will know that moment when we see it”.

That moment of victory apparently did not require either the apprehension of Saddam Hussein or the discovery of weapons of mass destruction. Instead, in another made-for- the-media scene, reminiscent of the film Top Gun, Bush dressed in a green flight suit and holding a helmet, got off a navy plane after it landed on the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln CNN, d. Although this happened outside the time frame of this study, it can be argued that the hero, Bush, finally won the hand of the victim or princess, namely the American people, when they re-elected him as president in the elections.

Firstly, it was established why a theoretical approach is necessary for a study of practical journalism. The news flow models of gatekeeping, agendasetting and framing were subsequently examined.

An exploration of framing failed to identify a single generally acceptable definition of the concept, but it was determined that various authors agreed that news may be framed as a story. Consequently, Vladimir Propp’s seminal analysis of folktales was discussed and applied to general coverage of Operation Iraqi Freedom.

Also, studies are examined that employ story analyses reminiscent of Propp’s fairytale analysis to investigate news coverage. The primary objective of a literature review is to determine what has been done in the field of study and could therefore actually be referred to as a “scholarship review” Mouton, The current study commenced in , shortly after Operation Iraqi Freedom. Due to the recency of the war, completed studies of news coverage during the war was practically non-existent, with the exception of Hafez’s case study of the effects of military involvement in conflict perception.

Initially, therefore, the review of scholarship on the key issues of news flow and gatekeeping, agendasetting and framing was done on studies that had nothing to do with either Gulf War II in general or specifically Operation Iraqi Freedom, but which showed similarities in some respect. However, by the end of the current study, a large corpus of research on Gulf War II news coverage became available in academic journals.

These scholarships were reviewed post hoc, and the most relevant works are included in this study for the sake of completeness. In other words, much of the literature was reviewed not to determine possible duplication of research or the methodology used by those authors as it is done traditionally Mouton, , but to indicate various approaches that were followed in studies that ran parallel to the current study.

Interestingly, shortly before the present study was concluded, the first results from a similar study conducted in the UK was published. The study by Robinson et al. The Robinson et al. Theses, dissertations, conference papers and refereed journal articles were consulted through the internet. In the flow of news from its sources to the audience reporters and editors are responsible for the selection of news; therefore they are gatekeepers Nossek, Very enlightening in this matter is the passage in 2 Chron.

X, No. I am grateful to Professor D. Asheri for lending me this edition of the book. In his opinion, these concepts were borrowed from political-military loyalty oaths customary in the Near Eastern kingdoms. A more detailed discussion ofsancta militia is found in R.

Reitzenstein, Die Hellenistischen Mysterienreligionen , pp. Da nomen sanctae huic militiae, cuius non olim sacramento etiam rogabaris, teque iam nunc obsequio religionis nostrae dedica et ministerii iugum subi voluntarium Apuleius, Metamorph.

XI 15, cf. XI 30; iugum subeo. Yadin, The War of the Sons of Light etc. Libri V, 2 p. Concerning the military basis of the mystery religion of Mithra and its Iranian origins, see G. Widengren, Religionen Irans f.

Apuleius also tells about a member of cohorte religionis unus who gives him his coat Metamorph. XI Very important in this respect is the passage in Eph. This epistle is full of contacts with the Qumran Literature and Jewish literature in general.

Flusser, Scripta Hierosyl 4 , p. A to which we may cf. What did the people of the city do? They rose to their feet, uncovered their heads and read it in awe, fear, trembling and trepidation. See, for example, Thucydides 5. For the formula in the Egyptian Hellenistic documents see L. Mitteis, Reichsrecht u. Volksrecht etc. Rabinowitz, Jewish Law , p. See R. Furthermore, the rest of the formulae cited by Rabinowitz are also not of Aramaic origin since they are attested in Assyrian documents.

Postgate, Neo-Assyrian Grants , for these documents. Ebeling, Neubabyl. Briefe ,p. Ruth 4. For D’p in the Qumran scrolls see M. Kadari, 3Vnn , p. Smith, Babylonian Historical Texts , p. See von Soden, Ahw pataru 5a and cf.

Landsberger, Th. Bauer, ZA 37, p. Concerning baring the head during prayer see 1 Cor. Margalioth edition for additional references. Liebermann, JQR 35 , pp. D ed, precious, sweet and pleasant’ – we have already discussed terms of love indicating faithfulness. Therefore, in Ps. In Judg. Borger, Die Inschriften Asarhaddons , p. See also Leshonenu 36 , pp. For DTD in covenantal context see H. Ginsberg apud Bickerman, Amer. For 11N meaning admire, see Exod.

See above p. I7n ]lpsn in the Mishnah Git. According to Borger’s reading: abutu annitu inapanikunu lu mahrat ina muhhikunu lit tabat. The translation of E. Reiner in ANET3. If Wiseman is right in reading lu da-ri rather than lu t[abat] cf. GAtu ‘good’, and see We find, for example, in Est. However, from various Egyptian documents one may learn that the Egyptians too used to demand loyalty oaths from their subjects and vassals, and, similarly to the oaths surveyed in this study they contain the following pledges: 1.

Thus we read in the Barkal stela of Thutmose III that the king administered an oath of fealty sdftryf to the people of Megiddo with the words:’we shall not repeat any evil thing against Mn-hpr-r’ during our lifetimes’ Urkunden IV Amenhotep II tells us that after defeating Kadesh, he adjured the people and their sons to keep loyalty Urkunden IV In a papyrus from the time of Ramses III, we read that Pharaoh administered an oath of fealty to one of his subjects that he will not hear or see anything without informing his master about it Edgerton, JNES10 [], p.

Professor S. Tamid 5. Abramson, Sinai Tishrei-Heswan [], p. This is the nwt[ryqwn] in a reverted form of ‘DDK of the Decalogue, which actually constitutes the response of Israel to God’s proclamation opened with Fux, M.

Amit and R. Meridor for being helpful in connection with this article. Helck, Die Beziehungen Agyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. Jahrtausend v. XVIII , p. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, no. The translation ‘and one would call to the other “Holy” etc.

This interpretation is indeed applied to Isa. Luzatto in his commentary on Isaiah. This interpretation appears to be the most plausible. We read there: the sound of the wings of the HITI beating against one another and the sounds of the facing them’. For a discussion of the liturgy see I. Elbogen, Derjudische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwicklung l , pp. For an up to date discussion see J. Heinemann in the Hebrew translation of this work , pp. ARN ed. Schechter , newly corrected edition, N.

Compare the Yoser Liturgy S. Fleischer, Tarbiz 38 , p. Margalioth, Sepher Ha-Razim , p. Gruenwald, in A. Schalit Memorial Volume , p. Compare also Rashi to Isa. Luzatto, nnni? The terms nEU1? The harmony between the singers the Levites and musicians the priests is perfect as is explicitly stated in 2 Chr.

The trumpeters and singers join in harmony to sound forth in praise with one voice Singing in unison is expressed in other instances by “TIT. T in the sense of ‘unison’ is clearly reflected in Isa. About the heavenly retinue arrayed in a choir, we hear inBenSira His angels were unable to completely recount all his wonders Loewenstamm [], p.

In the conventional Qedushah liturgy which combines Isa. In order to express the antiphon here too PIQU1? Singer, SPB, p. Kutscher, Tarbiz 33 [] p. In the Qumran Targum of Job this is rendered: when the morning stars shone together and all of God’s angels shouted in unison’ cf. XXX: The ‘shining’ of the stars expresses their adoration as the ‘voices’ of the angels. On the luminaries as angels cf. The angels are the Lord’s servants and must fulfil their duties, everybody according to his place in the hierarchy.

Similar concepts are attested in Mesopotamian hymns concerning the Annunaki and the Igigi, which overlap in many ways the angels in the Israelite tradition. The Muses in the Greek tradition, which functionally and typologically also resemble the angels,17 are said to sing to Zeus in unison This is discussed in chapter 5, below.

Lambert, in Zikir sumin, Festschrift F. Kraus , p. The angels in the Bible constitute, as is well known, the heavenly council, cf. Chapter 5.

Compare Ps. These are the Annunaki and the Igigi who like the angels in Israel are considered the princes of the nations cf. Daniel The Muses appear in several functions, recalling the various functions of the angels: 1.

The Muses are, as known, omniscient; cf. They appear from the mist Hesiod, Theogony 9 ; cf. The angel that struck Jacob in Gen. Here we read: ‘They all stand in purity and holiness, offering songs and hymns, praise and jubilation HTm 20 Mew sing in unison with the angels The belief that the earthly worshippers praise the Lord as do the angels of heaven is alluded to already in the hymns of the OT.

Thus the author of the Thanksgiving Hymn in 1QH: 3. Hesiod, Theogony, Wertheimer, , p. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah and Mysticism, p. Flusser, ‘Sanktus und Gloria’, Festschrift O. Michel, p. Odeberg, 3 Enoch , 7. Dl”l in H. Kuhn, Enderwartung undgegenwdrtiges Heil , pp.

The angels were also mustered according to their ranks, cf. For a discussion of the term IQtfQ cf. Kuhn Enderwartung etc. Compare in the ‘Qedushah’ liturgy in Apost. VII, 35 ed. As is clear from the first example, the angels and the men not only sing praises together, they also have a common lot.

Thus we read in 1QS Compare also 1QH 6. Restored according to 3. Kuhn, Enderwartungen p. Holm-Nielson, Hodayot , p. This refers to the new creation in the eschatological sense, see Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. For the ‘new creation’ see also 1QH Charles, Pseudepigrapha, ad he. II, p. Kimron, Shnaton IV , p. For the relationship between lQH3. For this idiom cf.

For the restoration cf. Kuhn, Enderwartung, p. For the angels as Dm33, cf. Those who join the angels in praise feel that they cast their lot with them, thus achieving eternal life, and the same applies to those who fight in battle together with the heavenly beings.

Thus, for example, those who were lifted to the height of the universe in order to stand among the ranks of the angels in praise 1QH 3. Similarly, those who stand in rank together with the eternal host praising God 1QH Though this concept of a share with the angels is not common in Rabbinic literature it is reflected in the Jewish liturgy which has affinities with Qumran liturgical texts in other respects as well.

In one of the morning prayers34 recited before an early Shema’ proclamation SPB, p. Happy are we who early and late, morning and evening, twice every day declare.

The Shema’ is connected with the Qedushah ritual: Shema’ on earth is said in unison with the angels who proclaim the Qedushah in heaven. The dictum there is based on Isa. Studien, pp. See Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. As will be shown elsewhere it is especially these prayers which have their counterparts in the Qumran liturgy. The prayer is found in Tanna debe Eliahu ed.

Friedman , ch. Horowitz-Rabin, p. The Heavenly Praise in Unison 51 eschatological connotation. As has been indicated plT[,Lrn3 have an eschatological meaning already in the Psalmodic literature see n.

The idea of the congregation on earth joining the angels in their praise stands behind the whole pattern of the Qedushah liturgy and has penetrated the ancient Christian liturgy.

Thus we read in 1 Clem. This, as has already been seen by D. Flusser,39 parallels the poems of the Qedushah in the Jewish liturgy: ‘let us sanctify your Name in this world, even as they sanctify it in the heavens above’, and the other similar openings of the Qedushot. This notion of emulating heavenly powers in connection with the Qedushah is also reflected in the Apostolic Constitutions, which as already shown by Bousset,40 preserved in a most genuine manner the Jewish Qedushah.

Thus we find there,41 after the two basic constituents of the Qedushah. The liturgy of the Qedushah is thus founded on the notion that the members of the congregation on earth can join in the angelic song, and, in unison, as if in a single chorus, sing out praise to their Creator. Indeed, the custom of lifting one’s heels when reciting the Qedushah is rooted in just this idea. Compare also Ignatius, Ephesians 4.

Werner, HUCA 19 , p. Nachrichten der Ges. Gottingen, Phil. Compare in the MusafQedusha’. See also the Epistle to the Corinthians of Clement of Rome This is to be compared with passages of the Yoser-Qedushah from the Genizah published by S. Schechter in Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an D.

Kaufmann, p. Asaf, Festschrift B. Dinaburg , p. For various explanations of this custom in Rabbinic literature see I. Gruenwald, art. In contrast to this, we shall try to point up the features this sect has in common with other sections of Judaism.

Although in the second temple period orthodoxy, such as that which developed under the Pharisees after the destruction of the second temple, was not yet in existence, there were, nevertheless, certain norms concerning the way of life and the worship of God which were the common inheritance of the various streams of Judaism during this period. In this paper we shall deal with this common inheritance. In the Judaism of the second temple period, there existed a wealth of religious and social obligations that were self-evident, even though they were not prescribed in the Torah.

Among these are matters for which the Pharisees laid down rules in the Oral Law. However, there are also others for which there are no definitive rules laid down in the Mishnah based on the Oral Law, and which remain within the bounds of sanctified customs, as we shall see below. In fact, it is difficult to know exactly when specific customs began to crystallize. For example, the obligation to recite a Benediction upon seeing a rainbow in the cloud, which appears in t.

For example, the ‘Enjoyment Benedictions’ priori rTO”n m. The Babylonian poem of the righteous sufferer dating to the first half of 1. On the variations of formulae in the Rabbinic sources, see S. The Book of Ben Sira. The Mishnah does not prescribe the Benediction, but rather asks: ‘What Blessings are said? The obligation to say the Benediction is a self-understood assumption. The Thanksgiving Benedictions called bfrUn rD”D, the Benedictions of Deliverance were instituted for four situations in which people are required to offer thanksgiving: the sick person recovered from an illness, the prisoner set free, the sea voyager upon reaching dry land, and the traveller in the desert upon reaching his destination.

Shema’ Let us begin with the recitation of the Shema’ with which the Mishnah opens. This can be interpreted in the sense that he ate that which belonged to the god; see Lambert, ‘The Poem of the Righteous Sufferer’, p. The Benedictions of Thanksgiving to be said by those who have been delivered from calamity appear in Ps. For a discussion of this, see M. See m. Nock, Conversion , pp.

Here also, as in the Enjoyment Benedictions above n. Prayer and Liturgical Practice in the Qumran Sect 55 yoke of the kingdom of heaven,11 in the words of the Pharisees 12 whose meaning is obligation with an oath, as has been explained by S.

This fact shows us that in the Qumran prayers as in the conventional Jewish liturgy, the Benediction of the Lights is conjoined with the recitation of the Shema V4 The Qedushah and the Benediction of the Lights A surprising congruence can be found between the hymn of the creation of the luminaries and the [song] of the angels from Qumran Cave II,15 and the liturgical Yoser hymns in the conventional prayers, and those from the Geniza, as I have shown above.

Around the throne or the divine chariot, the angels stand singing,18 and all this occurs at the hour at which the luminaries appear, and the gates of darkness and light are opened.

This coincides with the conventional Jewish prayers, in which SifreNum, Section ed. Horowitz, On the recitation of the Shema’ as qlws acclamation and the manner of its recitation in public, see. See chapter 2 Ibid See my article, ‘Prayers for Knowledge and Forgiveness’, pp. Parallel formulae have also been found in the prayer for the Sabbath in the See chapter 2, ‘Traces of Qedushat Yoser See Chapter 2. See N. Petuchowski and E.

Fleischer, , pp. Lee I. Levine, , pp. The people that hallow the seventh day, even all of them, shall be satiated and delighted.. SPB, p. Another formula found in the prayers of Sabbaths and Festivals in the Qumran Scroll edited by Baillet28 is that which appears in 4Q, fragment 3 p. It is interesting to note that the idea of the ingathering of the exiles in connection with a Festival appears in the Septuagint translation of Jer.

Joshua says, ‘In the month of Nisan they were delivered, in the month of Nisan they will be delivered in the time to come’ b. Rosh Hash. A Qumran fragment in which we find formulae congruent with those in the prayers for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur is 1Q These words are parallel to the section of a prayer from the service of the High Holy Days:. The incarceration of the outcome of iniquity in the Qumran passage is analogous to iniquity closing her mouth, just as the image of the disappearance of wrong like smoke in the Qumran passage parallels the idea of wickedness being wholly consumed like smoke, in the conventional prayer.

On the basis of this perception, David Flusser suggested seeing in the passage a part of the sect’s Rosh Hashanah service in his lecture at the Ninth World Congress of Jewish Studies in Jerusalem, In 4Q 2. The text lQ34bls, which is connected with the Day of Atonement, has points of contact with the conventional ne’ilah closing prayer for Yom Kippur.

But You have chosen a people in the time of Your favour. For You do not desire Q”lBnn N1? However, there is a difference. Another text with a motif identical to that of the first Benediction of the Amidah is the fragment from the Genesis Apocryphon, which refers to the shield 3. There we read words which go beyond the framework of the Targum to the verses: ‘I am a shield to you’ Gen. The Benediction of the Shield of Abraham should also be compared with the Benediction of the Ge ‘ula which comes before the Amidah: Helper of our Fathers you are from eternity, Shield and Saviour for their descendants after them every generation’ SPB, p.

In the Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave we have found Songs and Thanksgiving with elements congruent with the Morning Benedictions of the conventional liturgy. The liturgy from Cave 11, which the editor has named ‘Plea for Deliverance’32 is none other than the Morning Thanksgiving, which opens by praising God for the return of breath after the night’s sleep and is interwoven with a Blessing to God who performs loving kindness toward his created beings. This is followed by a request for forgiveness for iniquities and for deliverance from afflictions IttS and temptations from Satan and the evil inclination ITU!

It appears that ‘sprk’ is a loanword from Persian, where spr means a shield. Fitzmyer, The Genesis Apocryphon , p. The public prayers of supplication in Qumran and in Judaism belong typologically to the category of national confessions, as do the above biblical fragments. Compare: a. U Nip] “JD2? Weinfeld, review article of B. Kittel, The Hymns of Qumran wBibl. Orientalis 41 , pp. Manfred R. Elbogen, Derjtidische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwicklung , pp. Elbogen, ibid, pp.

Baer, ibid. Baer, iWd, pp. Prayer and Liturgical Practice in the Qumran Sect 61 The dominant motif in both Dibrei Hame’orot and the Prayer for Mondays and Thursdays is the remembering of the covenant with the patriarchs. You have been gracious to p. Your people, Israel i countries whither You have banished them 4Q , V And gather our exiles from the four corners of the earth Baer, p.

However, one should question how the request for deliverance from violence: ‘DVil “[U We find however that in the prayer before setting forth on a journey mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud Ber. This combination is now comprehensible to us in the light of the fragment from Qumran, which includes biblical verses referring to Jacob’s going on his way Gen.

Both these incidents, connected with the encountering of assailants while on a journey and deliverance from them, are most suitable for prayers and requests in which one asks for deliverance from the perils of a journey.

John M. Allegro, DJD 5, p. One should note that the traditional Benediction of the Marriage Ceremony centres around three principal subjects: 1 The creation of man coming from the power of procreation whose original source comes from Adam and Eve who are mentioned in the Benediction for the Marriage Ceremony, 2 The rejoicing of the groom and bride against the background of love, companionship and friendship connected with this, 3 The rejoicing of Jerusalem in whose streets a cry of joy and gladness bursts forth.

Although today we are accustomed to the seven Benedictions in the order of the marriage service, we know that there existed a difference of opinion between the communities of Babylon and Palestine and that the Palestinian Jews used to recite only three Benedictions during the marriage ceremony.

Baumgarten50 attempted to refute the claim that the scroll refers to the Benediction for the Marriage Ceremony on the basis of the allusion to old men and women in this text. He claimed that the text apparently refers here to old men who joined the sect, basing his claim on the description of the therapeutai in Philo the Alexandrian. However, he did not consider the fact that in the prophetic description of Jerusalem, reinhabited and teeming with life, from which the expressions in the Benediction for the Marriage Ceremony are drawn such as Jer.

The reference to lulavim palm branches found here51 is reflected in the custom of bringing myrtle to the hupa and reciting a Benediction over them,52 a custom mentioned in the b.

DJD 7, pp. See Siddur R. Saadja Gaon ed. Davidson, S. Assaf and B. Joel, , p. There the Sabbath is likened to a bride whom they go out to meet with bundles of myrtle 3. Prayer and Liturgical Practice in the Qumran Sect 63 Grace After Meals A division of opinion existed among the Tannaim over whether the three Benedictions should be recited only after eating bread, or whether it was necessary to say the Benedictions also after eating the fruits with which the land of Israel was blessed m.

According to R. Gamaliel, the commandment ‘And you shall eat and be satisfied and you shall bless’ Deut. It is interesting that in the Qumran fragment 4Qdeutn in which the biblical verses under discussion appear,54 there is a space of one line between the words ‘a land of wheat and barley, of vines etc.

Stegemann, who first edited this fragment,55 was surprised by this line space between the verses and was unable to explain it. It would appear that the space can only be explained against the background of this difference of opinion among the Sages. The scribe of the scroll before us wished to make it known that the Benediction in v. Minyan In the Manual of Discipline we find the fixed order of the quorum often men for prayer 1QS These three situations: official prayer, grace after a communal meal when invoking the name of God and also the reading of the Torah require the Minyan in conventional Jewish Halakhah.

The Sages regulated that one Benediction, an abstract of the three V1? In his article, ‘4Q Mit Exzerpten aus Deuteronomium’, pp. It is interesting to note that in another text from Qumran 4Q in which the people’s satisfaction with the land, rather than their eating of its fruit is emphasized, the hemistich ‘a land where you may eat food without sting’ is omitted.

See C. For example, the priest passes at the head of the procession of the entering into the covenant 1QS 2. Josephus, War 2. As I have mentioned elsewhere,58 the priest was considered as the leader in the Qumran sect, at least in a formal way. So also in Pharisaic law, we find a preference for the priest in similar matters: the priest is the first to begin the reading of the Torah, the first to recite a Benediction at a communal meal, and not only after the meal, but also before it see below , and in general, the priest appears as first in things concerned with holy matters, as can be learned from the Beraitha of the School of R.

Ishmael: “inETTpl’ ‘and you must treat him as holy’ Lev. The Canon Although members of the sect wrote literary compositions beyond that permitted according to the conventional Pharisaic criterion of sacred books, they also believed that there was a series of sacred books, a canon consisting of the Torah and Prophets: the law of Moses and the books written by the servants of the Lord, the prophets.

This triple sense of canonical writings is reflected in the liturgy of Rosh Hashanah: the references to Kingdom, Remembrances and Shofars The liturgy is divided into three sections: verses from the Torah; writings which were said ‘by Your Servants, the Prophets’; verses from the writings: ‘by the words of Your Holy One’.

The threefold division of the canon also appears in the Greek introduction to Ben Sira60 and in the Gospel of Luke See t. On ‘the Torah, the Prophets and the rest of the Writings’ see M. Prayer and Liturgical Practice in the Qumran Sect 65 are enumerated.

Furthermore, even the division of opinion in medieval Judaism over the methods of Rashi and Rabenu Tarn is reflected in Qumran. These customs, however, were based upon the Judaism of the second Temple period. Shema ‘ before the Shema ‘ of evening SPB,p. In connection with the combination of Torah and Prophecy in Qumran, see G. DJD 6,4Q , pp. Albright Volume , pp. Prayers for the Sabbaths and Festivals SP5, pp. When wilt thou reign in Zion?

Speedily, in our days, do thou dwell there forever. Mayest thou be exalted and sanctified in Jerusalem thy city throughout all generations and to all eternity.

May our eyes behold thy kingdom, as it is said in thy glorious Psalms by thy truly anointed, David: “The Lord shall reign forever, thy God, O Zion, for all Generations. Do not tarry, even if you tarry we shall wait'”. Daniel continues this tradition into the second temple period with his exclamation: ‘Happy is the man who “waits'” PDnDn; Prophets and people alike anticipate the future revelation of God’s majesty, which will entail divine judgement.

The people long for this judgment, assuming that it will be followed by vengeance upon Israel’s enemies and the redemption of Israel, while the prophets insist that judgement will encompass Israel as well as her enemies. Qedushah liturgy: cf. Biblical and liturgical texts in this article reflect the author’s adaptations of various English translations. From Shenoute, Abbot of Athribis in Egypt, in the 4th century; cf.

Amelineau, Oeuvres de Schenoudi II , pp. For the ancient roots of the Qedushah see Chapter 2. The Day of the Lord 69 borrowed from ancient Israelite tradition, according to which God appears from his abode, Sinai Deut.

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Medical device OEMs are seeing an expanding pool of laser service providers competing for a place in their supply chains. The Apollo Endosurgery Overstich System has laser weld points, seven of which are visible here. Cheaper and enhanced When it comes to laser technology and services, costs have significantly decreased.

Current lasers are less expensive to purchase and easier to operate, which has led to an explosion in the number of laser OEMs and service subcontractors peddling their equipment and services to medical device OEMs. The inevitable result of this new competition has been historically low manufacturing costs. Interestingly, one byproduct of this trend has been a growing chasm in the world of laser-welding specialists. Well established laser-service providers with large engineering staffs have shifted their focus to the advanced technical space, providing highvalue engineering services to medical device OEMs and assisting in product design, prototype development and early production.

Are the BRIC markets still worth the effort? Compared to the highly evolved medical device markets in the U. The BRIC markets have long been pursued by device manufacturers as attractive alternatives for generating new business. But these emerging markets are presenting their own challenges, in terms of regulatory structures and enforcement, transparency or lack thereof , and associated costs. Although the government recently shook up leadership and staff at the Russian medical device regulatory agency Roszdravnadzor RZN , the sometimes arbitrary process of obtaining approval to sell devices there can still befuddle first-time registrants.

This change was made primarily to lessen the huge backlog of applications awaiting RZN review. Under the new rule, all modification requests must undergo review by Expertise Centers just like new registrations do. These review requirements may lead to longer approval times and additional costs for manufacturers needing to change or modify their Roszdravnadzor registrations.

Based on the example of these two recent developments, it appears that Russia will continue to be one of the more challenging markets going forward; additional reforms similar to that for Class I device registrations would, however, attract greater interest from foreign firms. India: Signs of a formal regulatory system on the horizon? Will be the year that the Indian government actually establishes a formal medical device registration system?

Signs are encouraging, but then again, India has been talking about regulating a broader array of devices for many years. Expanding its regulatory system to include a broader array of medical devices and IVDs would lead to a more predictable process for registrants in India.

Higher costs for Chinese market entry Although the Chinese Food and Drug Administration CFDA has taken steps to address challenges such as poor transparency and unpredictability in the Chinese medical device registration process, satisfying Chinese registration requirements will remain difficult for many foreign manufacturers.

Although successful commercialization in China can prove highly lucrative for foreign device manufacturers, ongoing challenges in terms of meeting CFDA requirements, now coupled with heftier application fees, may cause additional difficulties particularly for smaller Class II device companies lacking the resources needed for Chinese market entry.

Companies looking to enter the Chinese market are well advised to seek a professional opinion to determine what, if any, clinical data will be required to support their registration. Conclusion: Look before leaping Given disparate market and regulatory characteristics across the BRIC countries, deciding whether or when to undertake device registration in one or any of these markets should involve several careful considerations.

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This view was confirmed in by US sociologists Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton who referred to one of the mass media’s roles in society as “status- conferral” function, which means that the mass media confer status on public issues, persons, organizations, and social movements.

Common experience as well as research testifies that the social standing of persons or social policies is raised when these command favorable attention in the mass media Examining this idea in his book The press and foreign policy, which dealt with the media’s role in the foreign policy decision-making process, Bernard Cohen, a political scientist from the University of Wisconsin, observed that the press “may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” : It is here, in the description of the political environment and the suggestion of the policy alternatives that give the best promise of managing the environment, that we shall find the press playing such an important role in current thinking about foreign policy For most of the foreign policy audience, the really effective political map of the world — that is to say, their operational map of the world — is drawn by the reporter and the editor, not by the cartographer.

It must be noted that the term “agenda”, according to McCombs , is not intended to imply that a news organisation has a premeditated, often evil, “agenda” that it pursues relentlessly, but is merely a descriptive term, referring to the result over time of numerous day-to-day decisions by all the gatekeepers in a news organisation, from the reporter in the field to the sub-editor and the editor. That the line-up of issues on the public agenda was very similar to the line-up of issues that was in the new coverage of the previous month McCombs, According to McCombs newspapers provide various cues about the salience of a particular news event through the placement of a report on a page, the page it is printed on, and the size of the headline, for example.

When the same cues regarding the importance of an issue recur over a period of days, weeks, months, or even longer, it becomes possible to identify the agenda of a news organisation. Since that first study almost four decades ago, and more than empirical studies later Weaver, , the agendasetting theory has expanded into five distinct stages McCombs, ; McCombs, The idea of first level agendasetting resulted from the theory initiated by McCombs and Shaw after their Chapel Hill research project which dealt with the prominence or salience of objects: “public issues, political candidates, other public figures.

It could be any set of objects that you might be interested in” McCombs, Other first level agendasetting studies include those by Winter and Eyal , Iyengar and Kinder , Eaton and Brosius and Kepplinger When people are in an unfamiliar situation, they experience a “need for orientation” which makes them turn to the news media to orient themselves McCombs, Highly knowledgeable people will be less likely to be influenced by the news agenda, but interested people who have little knowledge would have a strong need for orientation, resulting in a very strong correspondence between the media agenda and those people’s opinions about an issue.

In recent years, studies of agendasetting increasingly moved away from first level agendasetting, or the media telling the audience ”what to think about”, to focus on second level or attribute agendasetting, which means the media is telling the audience “how to think about” issues or objects Sheafer, Stated differently, while the first level of agendasetting refers to the transmission of object salience, a second level of agendasetting involves the transmission of attribute salience, which in fact may guide people in what to think McCombs, An “object” refers to for example topics, issues, and persons, which may each have various attributes, i.

Just as objects may be presented by the news media as more or less important, so too may attributes vary in salience, which makes them equally powerful as agendasetting tools. Perhaps a quick way to summarize the difference between the basic agenda- setting effect, and what’s now come to be called attribute agendasetting, is in terms of Lippman’s phrase “the pictures in our heads”.

The object agenda, in effect, says “What are the pictures about? What are they pictures of? What does this really look like? Second level agendasetting studies e. Empirical studies, however, do not draw a clear distinction between cognitive and affective attributes Sheafer, Other recent studies on second level agendasetting include those by Scheufele , Golan and Wanta and Kiousis This means that the salience of an object or its attributes in the stories published by one medium will be mirrored by other media.

Once it became obvious that media reports influence the public’s perception of the importance of various issues, media researchers wanted to know who is responsible for the media’s agenda McCombs, This is a complex question with many answers: most importantly, the media’s agenda is shaped by news values and journalistic tradition.

The agenda is also shaped by outside influences, such as various sources: press spokespersons, government officials, politicians, and the ubiquitous public relations agencies.

However, an agenda is also shaped by the whole mix of different media – the relationship that exists, for instance, between blogs and news media, both Internet and traditional Weaver Indiana University , Maxwell E. Although Weaver et al. Kinder associated the effects of television agendasetting with perceptions of the US President “in a demonstration of what some cognitive psychologists have called priming — making certain issues or attributes more salient and more likely to be accessed in forming opinions” Weaver, Priming is similar to first level agendasetting, but goes further by addressing the effect of these agendas on the audience’s perceptions of an issue Lee, It begs the question: “What are the consequences of creating these pictures in the public’s mind?

According to this view, people will therefore make evaluations or judgements based on what they regard as being more important, or what is discussed most in the media, as this information is the easiest to access.

It must be noted that some authors disagree with the notion that priming is an extension of agendasetting, e. This relationship is apparent from McCombs’s definition, which describes framing as the selection of a restricted number of thematically related attributes for inclusion on the media agenda when a particular object is discussed.

A generally accepted definition of framing is, however, problematic. Although there exists abundant literature on framing — some articles are indexed in Communication Abstracts for the period to Weaver, — analysts differ in their interpretation of the concept when dealing with the different approaches to and theories of frames, framing devices, models of framing, framing analyses and framing effects Kinder, Rather, frame analyses are a number of related, even though sometimes partially incompatible methods for the analysis of discourses Scheufele, American sociologist Erving Goffman is one of the first scholars to define framing, which he explains as the many ways in which the media create the context within which the audience may “locate, perceive, identify and label” world affairs, in other words, to make sense of those events.

Columbia University Journalism and Sociology Professor Todd Gitlin points out that the largely invisible frames organises the world for journalists, who report on world events, by enabling them to quickly and routinely process large amounts of information.

Conversely, frames also help the audience to understand the world. On the contrary, some form of media frame is essential to the understanding of the world — without it, much of what happens and what is said would remain “mere talk and incomprehensible sounds” Tuchman, Frames, then, define problems — determine what a causal agent is doing and costs and benefits, usually measured in terms of cultural values; diagnose causes — identify the forces creating the problem; make moral judgments — evaluate causal agents and their effects; and suggest remedies — offer and justify treatments for the problem and predict their likely effects.

In order to analyse frames present in coverage of Operation Iraqi Freedom, it is necessary to decide on an applicable frame. This is rather problematic, as just like the definition of framing is vague in literature Scheufele, ; Hyun, ; Kinder, , so is the identification of frames: “We are not told how to identify a frame” Carvalho, This “conceptual conundrum” often leaves it to the researcher to “propose their own definition of frames and approaches to framing study before they begin their research” Hyun, Alternative frames are represented by a single presentation of a sentence or two, reminders of how an issue might be understood.

This study focuses on how international news flows and not on the effects of the news on the audience. Therefore, framing devices are particularly important to this research.

Coalition forces were characterised as freedom loving, working hard to avoid civilian casualties and seeking to protect religious diversity Saddam Hussein and his sons, like a gang of Hollywood rustlers, were given forty eight hours to get out of town Knight, 1, There are many reasons for the use of the story frame in the production of news.

It is employed to attract attention by provoking feeling in the audience, “inducing him to feel a sense of personal identification” Lippmann, It is also a consequence of the mass media’s continuous need for more news Boorstin, To satisfy this need, “bogus dramas and humbug heroes” are created which spawn an “empty world of celebrity” Hanson, We expect new heroes every season, a literary masterpiece every month, a dramatic spectacular every week, a rare sensation every night Boorstin, Jamie Shea, NATO spokesman during the Balkan war, told business leaders in Switzerland, in a talk named Selling a conflict — the ultimate PR challenge, that he credited his successful media campaign in the Balkans to giving the public what they loved: “daily soap operas with good characters”.

Whenever things grew quiet on the war front, he used the time “to explain again who’s the good guy and who’s the bad guy”. The usefulness of the story frame was tested by Massachusetts Institute of Technology political scientist Alan J. Berinsky and Kinder in their study of the decision making process.

They found that citizens understand particular event sequences when they can organize the relevant information into coherent stories. Political leaders, analysts and government officials tend to frame their views and statements — to be transferred to the public through all the various sectors of mass media — with the audience in mind, thereby shaping the way the public process and store information that would contribute to their understanding of politics.

In a study on how people make sense of politics, Berinsky and Kinder found that when information is framed as a good story, the audience’s understanding of the data changes, which in turn appears to shape opinion. These frames do not need to present strong arguments for one side or another in order to change public opinion.

Small and subtle differences in the presentation of information can sometimes do the trick. Berinsky and Kinder declares that [a] good frame is at its heart a good story. To understand why some frames succeed and others fail, we need to understand what makes an effective story. According to Kinder [p]eople know what makes a good story, and this knowledge influences how they understand text and how they represent such text in their minds Evidence is unscrambled.

Causal and intentional relations are established. Gaps are filled. Plot turns are identified. Thus, the story frame is a useful device to create desired perceptions about current issues, and its utilisation as a strategic tool is advocated by US military scholars William Casebeer and James A.

Because the story frame has become a weapon in the hands of government officials and military strategists who use the media to disseminate carefully constructed tales Payne, , it became imperative to determine what the elements of a good story are. As such, Propp’s schema will be used in this study to demarcate the story frame to be used in the analysis of Operation Iraqi Freedom media coverage. He broke down folktales into their “small component parts” and identified eight character types Table 1 and 31 basic elements or “functions” Table 21, next page in the stories Propp, , Not all the elements were present in all the folktales, but those that were, always recurred in the same order.

Table 1. Propp’s 31 basic functions Propp, 1. One of the members of a family absents himself from home. An interdiction is addressed to the hero. The interdiction is violated 4. The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance. The villain receives information about his victim. The villain attempts to deceive his victim as to capture him or his belongings. The victim submits to deception and thereby unwittingly helps his enemy. The villain causes harm or injury to a member of a family. One member of a family either lacks something or desires to have something.

Misfortune or lack is made known; the hero is approached with a request or command; he is allowed to go or he is dispatched. The seeker agrees to or decides upon counteraction.

The hero leaves home. The hero is tested, which prepares him to receive either a magical agent or helper. The hero acquires the use of a magical agent. The hero is transferred, delivered, or led to the whereabouts of an object of search. The hero and the villain join in direct combat.

The hero is branded. The villain is defeated. The initial misfortune or lack is liquidated. The hero returns. The hero is pursued. Rescue of the hero from pursuit. The hero, unrecognized, arrives home or in another country. A false hero presents unfounded claims. A difficult task is proposed to the hero. The task is resolved. The hero is recognized. The false hero or villain is exposed. The hero is given a new appearance. The villain is punished.

The hero is married and ascends the throne. When these elements are distilled into a simpler form, the most common story told is that of a villain who harms a victim, prompting the hero to go on a quest. The hero receives a magic agent from a donor, which he uses to defeat the villain in order to right the initial wrong and ultimately to win the hand of the princess Propp, While these stories have enduring appeal as fairytales, they also form the backbone of popular cinema.

During Operation Iraqi Freedom the author, as an ordinary member of the global audience, was struck by the strong “story-like” coverage by the media. In this case, President George W. Bush is the indisputable hero. The Wall Street Journal described Bush as not only of strong moral character himself, but … he actually believes in things He sees rights and wrongs … and has a clear vision of what is and is not in America’s interest and does not hesitate to act accordingly Du Pont, In his January State of the Union address, Bush pledged: Whatever action is required, whenever action is necessary, I will defend the freedom and security of the American people Bush, a.

Against the backdrop of a painting of Jesus, with his body- language mirroring that of the Saviour, Bush is by association framed as everything that is heroic, noble, good, fair, honest, and blameless Photo: Spiegel Online, According to White House spokesperson Ari Fleischer a , however, nobody, but nobody, is more reluctant to go to war than President Bush …He hopes it can be averted, but he is also clear about the fact that one way to save American lives is to prevent Saddam Hussein from engaging in something that can be far, far worse than the price we saw on September Despite this reluctance, Bush b told the press at his ranch in Texas: I’m going to continue doing the job the American people expect, which is to safeguard America and Americans My job is to protect the American people I’ve got my mind on the peace and security of the American people.

And I will do that Bush, c. For this, the US Senate and House of Representatives gave him the authority to take the necessary actions against international terrorists and terrorist organizations, including those nations, organizations or persons who planned, authorized, committed or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, or harbored such persons or organizations The White House, The villain. Saddam Hussein is the villain in this tale, “the man who tried to kill my dad”, according to George W.

Bush, referring to an alleged plot to assassinate Bush Senior in Kuwait in Lyon, With his dark suit, fedora and moustache, the gun-toting Saddam Hussein apparently fits in his frame as a Brando-esque villain Photo: CNN, His brutal rule includes slaughter, rape, mutilation and the destruction of families … Saddam is working feverishly to acquire nuclear weapons Perle, a. Much the same images were portrayed during Gulf War I, when Saddam was referred to as a Hitler, a dictator, a military strongman, a madman who was a menace to world peace and the American way of life, a beast and a monster that Bush Senior had to destroy Kellner, The victim or princess.

In his 7 October speech in Cincinnati Bush laid a perfect foundation for the future portrayal of the American nation as a victim in the Gulf War II “fairytale”, who must be saved from the villain. In this speech, Bush reminded the American people of 11 September , when America felt its vulnerability — even to threats that gather on the other side of the earth. We resolved then, and we are resolved today, to confront every threat, from any source, that could bring sudden terror and suffering to America.

During Operation Iraqi Freedom, US government officials often reminded the American people of the tragedy of 11 September, thereby framing them as the victim: vulnerable and in need of a saviour Photo: New York Newsday, We know that the regime has produced thousands of tons of chemical agents, including mustard gas, sarin nerve gas, VX nerve gas.

Saddam Hussein also has experience in using chemical weapons. He warned that if Iraqi could obtain the smallest amount of enriched uranium, it could produce a nuclear weapon in less than a year: We’ve experienced the horror of September the 11th. We have seen that those who hate America are willing to crash airplanes into buildings full of innocent people. Our enemies would be no less willing, in fact, they would be eager, to use biological or chemical, or a nuclear weapon Bush, These views were repeated in January , when Bush again reminded the American people of their vulnerability and the threat Saddam posed: because of Al Qaeda connections, because of his history, he’s a danger to the American people, and we’ve got to deal with him before it is too late CBS, b.

The quest. Bush was quoted saying that Saddam was producing and hiding weapons that would enable him to dominate the region and intimidate “the civilized world — and we will not allow it” Bush, d. Bush announced the start of the war from the Oval Office, and told his nation that his quest was to disarm Saddam in order to protect the Americans Photo: The Boston Globe, a.

That duty falls to me as commander-in-chief by the oath I have sworn, by the oath I will keep. The terrorist threat to America and the world will be diminished the moment that Saddam Hussein is disarmed Bush, e. The donor. The US government acted as the donor of the magic agent that helped the hero in his quest.

The US Congress recognised “the threat to [their] country” and “voted overwhelmingly … to support the use of force against Iraq” Bush, f. Fully supportive of the war, despite a few in-house squabbles, “the House and Senate have been doing more cheerleading than debating or legislating when it comes to war-related issues” since the bombs started exploding over Baghdad St.

Louis Post-Dispatch, Congress exercised its war power “by building and maintaining the military through the budget — deciding what bombers to build and what tanks to buy”. The reason given for this united front was that once U. Congress is not likely to leave them in a lurch St. In this instance, the US military acted as the magic agent provided by the government, the donor, to aid the hero in succeeding in his quest. This “magic agent” was described in the media as an “immense force” that Bush was about to unleash Walczak, , acting with “breathtaking precision, almost eyewatering speed, persistence, agility and lethality” Sullivan, a in order to “to disarm Iraq, to free its people and to defend the world from grave danger” Bush, g.

President Bush gives the thumbs-up sign to his troops, framed as the magic agent with which he planned to obliterate the villain Photo: The Boston Globe, b. The “peace of a troubled world” became the responsibility of the US military as Bush promised Saddam that he will use the “full force and might of the US military” against him, referring to the coalition troops, six carrier battle groups, and more than aircraft that were ready to “pummel Iraq” Walczak, As the offensive stages of the war drew to a close, Bush told the troops onboard USS Abraham Lincoln that we have fought for the cause of liberty and for the peace of the world.

Our nation and our coalition are proud of this accomplishment, yet it is you, the members of the United States military, who achieved it Because of you our Nation is more secure. Because of you the tyrant has fallen and Iraq is free Bush, h. The victory. This was the moment when the “magic agent” brought the evil villain to a fall in a scene rich in symbolism: the US tanks rolling up to the statue on the Al Firdos square, a Marine covering the face of Saddam with the American flag, then removing it to replace it with the Iraqi flag, the Iraqis trying but not succeeding to pull down the statue, the US Marines coming to the rescue, the giant Saddam that dominated the scene bowing to the American forces, falling, and ultimately revealing that it is nothing but an empty shell.

The fall of this last statue became symbolic of the fall of the Iraqi government, even though Saddam himself had not been captured at that stage CNN, c. When asked by the media when the instant of victory might come, the reply was: “I think we will know that moment when we see it”.

That moment of victory apparently did not require either the apprehension of Saddam Hussein or the discovery of weapons of mass destruction. Instead, in another made-for- the-media scene, reminiscent of the film Top Gun, Bush dressed in a green flight suit and holding a helmet, got off a navy plane after it landed on the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln CNN, d.

Although this happened outside the time frame of this study, it can be argued that the hero, Bush, finally won the hand of the victim or princess, namely the American people, when they re-elected him as president in the elections. Firstly, it was established why a theoretical approach is necessary for a study of practical journalism.

The news flow models of gatekeeping, agendasetting and framing were subsequently examined. An exploration of framing failed to identify a single generally acceptable definition of the concept, but it was determined that various authors agreed that news may be framed as a story. Consequently, Vladimir Propp’s seminal analysis of folktales was discussed and applied to general coverage of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Also, studies are examined that employ story analyses reminiscent of Propp’s fairytale analysis to investigate news coverage.

The primary objective of a literature review is to determine what has been done in the field of study and could therefore actually be referred to as a “scholarship review” Mouton, The current study commenced in , shortly after Operation Iraqi Freedom. Due to the recency of the war, completed studies of news coverage during the war was practically non-existent, with the exception of Hafez’s case study of the effects of military involvement in conflict perception.

Initially, therefore, the review of scholarship on the key issues of news flow and gatekeeping, agendasetting and framing was done on studies that had nothing to do with either Gulf War II in general or specifically Operation Iraqi Freedom, but which showed similarities in some respect.

However, by the end of the current study, a large corpus of research on Gulf War II news coverage became available in academic journals. These scholarships were reviewed post hoc, and the most relevant works are included in this study for the sake of completeness. In other words, much of the literature was reviewed not to determine possible duplication of research or the methodology used by those authors as it is done traditionally Mouton, , but to indicate various approaches that were followed in studies that ran parallel to the current study.

Interestingly, shortly before the present study was concluded, the first results from a similar study conducted in the UK was published. The study by Robinson et al. The Robinson et al. Theses, dissertations, conference papers and refereed journal articles were consulted through the internet. In the flow of news from its sources to the audience reporters and editors are responsible for the selection of news; therefore they are gatekeepers Nossek, Journalists and editors are employed by media organisations, with their own priorities, and which form part of the greater media as institution.

In turn, the media as a whole is part of the social structure, and as such interacts with and is influenced by other societal constructs. When relevant news flow studies were identified, studies dealing with news flow to South Africa were also considered, even though none of them deal with news flow during Operation Iraqi Freedom. The gatekeeping studies that were reviewed only refer to Operation Iraqi Freedom coverage.

The most notable of these, e. Because they form the basis of the analyses in the present study, the work done by the International Press Institute and Sreberny- Mohammadi is discussed briefly. It examines the way in which international news is reported and circulated, and notes that globally news flows irregularly, and that international agencies tend to concentrate on hard news and on “elite nations”.

War, politics and foreign relations are covered most frequently, while cultural activities and smaller nations as a whole are mostly ignored. Two of these findings are that politics and political actors dominate international news reporting everywhere, and that media across the globe tends to focus on events taking place in its immediate geographical region Stevenson, a.

The latter did not apply to Operation Iraqi Freedom, when the South African media, like that of hundreds of nations across the globe, enthusiastically covered a war that was geographically and politically far removed from the audience itself; the reasons for this could be the subject of a separate study on news values, news flow and gatekeeping.

The results of the news flow study were never published in toto Schreiner, , but some participants decided to publish their “national” results, such as De Beer et al. These results represent two of the very few international studies of news flow to Africa Schreiner, Eribo found that in Nigeria the source of most foreignreports could not be identified, as the newspapers did not credit news agencies.

This study also showed that compared to the global news flow study of coverage of international trade and sports increased while global politics received less attention. In their study of international news flow and events covered by African media, De Beer et al.

They found that the media did not overly depend on the four agencies and that they used more stories from their own reporters and correspondents. This implied a shorter news channel with fewer gatekeepers to influence agendas and frames of the coverage. A more recent news flow study in South Africa is the comprehensive work of South African media analyst Wadim Schreiner who did a quantitative study of news flow to, from, and within Africa.

He noted that although South African news coverage of events outside of Africa is decreasing, intense news incidents such as the attacks on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon on 11 September tend to confuse the picture of news flow to Africa Schreiner, Internationally, a number of news flow studies were conducted since Operation Iraqi Freedom, such as Hamilton and Jenner , Nossek and Horvit These studies look at the news flow phenomenon from a widely divergent range of viewpoints.

In their study of the changing face of foreign correspondence, American mass communication scholars John Maxwell Hamilton and Eric Jenner , delineate changes in international news flow with the aim of elucidating the implications of such changes for future researchers who want to study the interplay between news and international policy. The authors of the study might have added a category for “expert non-affiliated foreign correspondents”, that is, foreigners who are experts in their field, but not journalists per se, hypothetically for example, if South African naturalist conservationist Lawrence Anthony would write a report for the Washington Post about the plight of the animals in the Baghdad Zoo.

Because the term “foreign correspondent” no longer defines the traditional concept, Hamilton and Jenner concludes: We cannot assess the health of foreign correspondence merely by counting the number of reporters sent abroad by major dailies and the networks or by only analyzing stories in The New York Times, Newsweek and CBS News.

None of the incidents occurred in the selected countries, which means that they all can be regarded as foreign news. When it is neither, coverage conforms to traditional norms of foreign news coverage.

This belies the common notion that acts of terrorism guarantees publicity, which is the purpose of the deed. The study is interesting in terms of the flow of foreign news, but it is a pity that more recent acts of violence, such as the 11 September attacks on the US and the war in Iraq were not included; not only for the sake of recency, but because the media landscape — especially in terms of technology — had changed drastically during the past decade.

Nevertheless, the study gives insight into the logic of reporters during times of national crisis. American journalism academic Beverly Horvit conducted a study from another angle, namely to examine how six international news agencies reflected the international structure of political power in the period prior to Gulf War II This is done to determine in what ways the news that most probably have reached the American public differed from news that flowed to the rest of the international community: whose perspectives were most salient, and was the coverage for or against the Bush administration’s foreign policies?

Horvit also notes that contrary to the views of some critics, Western news agencies cover a broader geographical area than their non-Western counterparts, and also provided news much more frequently However, the non-Western agencies reported on countries that would rarely be covered by Western agencies, such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan and the Ukraine, as well as Cuba, Cyprus and Nicaragua Horvit, Four of the agencies reported most frequently from the US and cited US officials more often than any other source Horvit, Thus we find in an oath to Gaius Caligula from Aritium,53 ‘and I will not revere myself or my sons more than his well being’ neque me neque liberos meos eius salute cariores habebo ,54 reminding us of the oath of the Hittite army officers quoted above: ‘If the life of our lord will not be more precious to us than our own lives’.

We can add to this paragraph in the Hittite treaties with the vassals, ‘Just as you Niqmepa, you yourself, your head, your wives, your army and your land are dear to you, so may the king himself, the king’s head, the king’s sons and the land of Hittite be dear to you forever’.

In the loyalty oath to Julius Caesar as it is described and cited by various authors56, similar formulae are reflected. In the oaths of the Hittite officers: ‘we shall guard pahsuenni the Sun the King of Heth 57 and further on in the administration of the oath to the officers: ‘guard the Sun and the Sun’s progeny’.

Lines Dessau, Inscript. Latinae Vol. Herman, Kaisereid, pp. Schuler, Heth. Dienstanweis p. Ibid, p. PRUIV VTE, 49, RCAE Polybius Vii. Admittedly, this expression may be a translation from Semitic, as Bickerman claims,63 but on the other hand we have found a similar clause in Appian’s description of the loyalty oaths to Julius Caesar – ‘to guard Caesar and the body of Caesar with all their strength’.

Loyalty to the King’s Progeny and Dynasty In the preceding section we presented the adjuration of Hittite officers according to which the officers are obliged to guard the king’s progeny as well. In addition, a Hittite document has been preserved in which a Hittite officer swears that he inquired as to whether the previous king had progeny who could reign after him but found none.

He also inquired as to whether there remained any women pregnant by the king. Not to Recognize Another King or Lord In the adjuration of the Hittite officers we read: ‘as to lordship do not recognize sak- any other man’. Appian, Bella civ. II, This description, as other descriptions of the oaths given to Caesar reflects oath formulae as they were actually said, and this may be seen by comparing with oaths of loyalty to the Roman emperors as they have become known from the inscriptions.

Laroche, RA 47 , p. Otten, MDOG 94 , pp. Milet I 3, ,4. Hermann, Kaisereid, p. Mitford, Journ. Goetze JCS 22 , pp. Not to Hide Rebels or Instigators All of the above mentioned documents require extradition of rebels and instigators and warn against hiding them.

HUL 83 not good and not proper. This is similar to the Oriental sources which use verbs whose literal meaning is say, tell, but whose contextual connotations are to turn over or uncover: In Akkadian qabu, in Hittite mema and in Hebrew “tti”[. Goetze, ibid. Waterman, RCAE Concerning ‘evil thing’ in “Q”! Fitzmyer, Sefire III, See above, n. Lines , and cf. I2 39, 20ff.

See the discussion in Weinfeld, DDS, pp. In the treaty between Suppiluliuma92 and Sunassura from Kizuwatna it is said If someone, man or city, shall rebel against the Sun, upon hearing this ki isamme he shall inform imassar the Sun.

Now, the expression ‘report all that is seen or heard’ is very familiar to us from Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian documents, once again in conjunction with treaty and loyalty oaths. Certain men write in a letter to Ashurbanipal97 that they took an oath and are now fulfilling what they swore to the king, to report anything that they may have seen or heard mimma mala tammaru u tasemmd.

In other places we hear about men who report to the king all that they see and hear: sa amaruni asmuni ana sarri Thus in VTE: ‘if someone in the palace starts a revolt, whether by day or night Similar clauses are attested in Greek political documents: In Deut. For this matter see in my book op.

Falk, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung 90 , p. He is the partner in the pact and not as Weidner supposed. For this matter see A. Goetze, Kizzuwatna,p. Weidner, Polit.

Oppenheim, JAOS 88 , pp. It seems that Mordechai fulfilled a similar function Esth. In the oath of the Chersonites Taurica we read: I will not betray.. I will be an enemy to those who plot and betray I will guard for the people and will not reveal any of the secrets Syll3 Seize Instigators and Punish Them In the adjuration of Hittite military personnel we read ‘Should a prince bring an evil thing idalus seize him and bring him before the king’.

In the loyalty oaths of the Hittite army officers ‘Should someone send us an evil thing.. In the soldiers’ oath to Ashurbanipal: ‘[Should someone be found] spreading an evil thing amat la tabti and we should hear.. In Esarhaddon’s adjuration of the vassals: ‘upon hearing such a thing [about a revolt] from anybody, if you do not seize the instigators of the revolt, do not bring them before the crown prince designate Ashurbanipal [and] if you, being able to seize and kill them, do not eradicate their name and descendants from the country Similar provisions against traitors are found in various decrees of the Athenian league and in the old amphyctionic oaths.

These occur especially in the attic psephisma against the enemies of democracy. Alp n. Schuler, Orient. For the whole problem see M. Philological Assoc. For the clarification of this term, which also occurs in the Erythrae Decree and in other writings, cf. The meaning of this term is that anyone could kill the traitor and be free of guilt. If one accept the Hebrew reading in Deut. In the amphictyonic oath as cited by Aischines we read: if anyone should violate the shrine of the god or be accessory to such violation, or make any plot against the holy places they would punish him with hand and foot and voice and all their mighty power KCCi xeipi KOU rroSi Km covr i KCU trocar!

Suvanei Aischines 2. The latter remind us of the provisions against treason in the religious domain as reflected for example in Deuteronomy Similar to the clauses against traitors in Deut. To Avenge the King In the oath of the Hittite army officers we read: ‘If we do not fight against him the rebel stubbornly, and do not retaliate’.

Identical clauses are found in other treaties. For instance, we find in the Sefire Treaty: ‘If it happens that one of my brothers or one of the house of my father or one of my sons or one of my officers..

Your son must come to avenge the blood of my son from his enemies A similar warning appears in Esarhaddon’s treaty: ‘If you do not seize and kill the instigators of the revolt, do not eradicate their name and descendants from the country, do not shed blood for blood, and do not avenge retaliate the crown prince designate Ashurbanipal, son of the King’ Such a clause is also found in the Paphlagonians’ loyalty oath to Augustus ‘and to pursue anyone considered an enemy and to wreak vengeance upon them with arms and sword whether on land or sea’.

Weinfeld, DOS, pp. For the text with an extensive commentary cf. Heidelberger Akad. Kl , p. Akkadian gimla la tutarraninni. The Hittite expression for vengeance corresponds to Akkadian gimillu turru which appears here, and see n. To be a Friend to Friends and Foe to Foes This clause is particularly characteristic of the Hittite treaties but it is of earlier origin, appearing in a treaty between Naram-Sin and Elam in the third millennium BCE, as well as in private family documents from the Old Babylonian Period.

It is true, this clause is absent in oriental treaties of the first millennium BCE, however, because of the small number of treaties from this period in the East, one is not allowed to speak about its disappearance in the first millennium BCE.

From Biblical usage we can learn that this formula was prevalent in the first millennium as well. We read in 2 Sam. This formula is reflected in 2 Chron.

It is found not only in treaties between different states but also in agreements between a king and subjects, and between individuals. For a comparison of the two inscriptions on this point see Herrmann, Kaisereid, p. Concerning this see my article JAOS 90 , p. In Greece this clause appears too on the level of interpersonal relationships, see, e. This opinion has been accepted by scholars of Greek culture, see for example J.

Moran, CBQ 25 , p. Licht, The Rule Scroll Jerusalem, , p. Smith, HTR 45 , p. See references in P. Hermann, Kaisereid, pp. Hermann claims that the formula is characteristic only of international relations while the formulae found in contexts of interpersonal relationships and relationships of a king to his subjects ibid. However, as we have 1. The Loyalty Oath in the Ancient Near East 17 oaths to the Roman Emperors such as that of the Paphlagonians to Augustus: To consider as friends those whom they consider friends and as foes those whom they consider foes’.

Validity of Covenant upon Succeeding Generations The parties to the Assyrian and Aramaic treaties obligate not only themselves but also the generations to come. We read, for example, in the Esarhaddon treaty: ‘ [this is] the treaty of Esarhaddon King of Assyria with Ramataya, his sons, grandsons, and with all the people of Urakazabanu, young and old..

The concern for assuring the loyalty of subsequent generations finds special expression in the clauses of the documents which speak of the obligations to teach the stipulations of the covenant to the sons. In the oath of the Hittite army officers we read: ‘if we do not bring these matters before our sons’, and in the vassals’ adjuration of Esarhaddon: ‘if you do not tell and do not give orders to your sons, grandsons..

And make them known to your children and to your children’s children’ 4. Glueck, Hesedin the Bible, p. For the formula in Greek see below p. In the oath of Aritium we only find the clause of being an enemy to Gaius’ enemies but not being a friend to his friends. Weinfeld, DDS, p.

Fitzmyer, Sefire, I A Formal Aspects of the Covenant Ceremony K. The Mass Gathering In the Assyrian as well as biblical covenants, we hear of the gathering together of all segments of the population to participate in the covenantal oath. All of these should be compared to the Josianic covenant with its gathering of ‘the whole population, young and old’ 2 Kgs The covenants of Sinai and Gerizim were also ratified in the presence of the entire populace Exod.

The Hittite treaty ceremonies were also made in the presence of the entire people who took the pledge. We read for example at the end of the tablet of the adjuration of the Hittite officers that the oath was taken in Usha, but one of the clauses within the document stipulates that the pact is binding on those absent from the gathering.

The public oath is also known to us from the Greek world. Thus we hear Xenophon saying ‘that everywhere in Greece there is a law that the citizens shall promise under oath to agree and everywhere they take this oath’ Memorabilia IV 4, Similarly we find in the pact between the people of Thera and the people of Cyrene which is concerned with the founding of the settlement in Cyrene, that Weinfeld, DDS, etc.

Streck, Assurbanipal II, p. Schuler, op. Goetze, Kleinasien2 l ,p. Meiggs and D. The Loyalty Oath in the Ancient Near East 19 all of those who were gathered, men, women and children, recited the covenant oaths. An adjuration of the entire population is also mentioned in other Greek treaties. Special administration of the oath was held for young recruits or minors who became of age and were accepted as full members in the community, reminiscent of the oath of the new initiates who joined the Qumran order, an oath made ‘in the sight of all the initiates’.

In the beginning of the oath we hear that not only inhabitants of Paphlagonia swore loyalty to Augustus but also the Romans who traded with them. This is to say that exemption from taking the oath could be given only to those who were committed to another master and thus freed from pledge to Augustus. Those who did not get the exemption were obliged to take the oath. It seems that the Pharisees and Essenes were also exempted from taking the oath to Herod Ant.

In the Manual of Discipline we find indeed that everyone who refuses to enter the covenant of God ‘has separated himself from the group and is not counted in the order Yahad Manual of Discipline 2. Yailenko, Viestnik Drevniej Istorii , Fasc. In the opinion of most scholars the date of the inscription in its present form is the fourth century BCE, however its nucleus dates back to the seventh century BCE. Compare also the oath enacted by Demophantus quoted above.

Line 80ff. Polybius III 61 which relates a similar notice in connection with an adjuration of soldiers. Bengtson III No. Manual of Discipline 5.

Licht, Mgylt Hsrkym, For tota Italia see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution, Compare also the oath of tota Syria to Vespasian Tacit Hist 2, Annual Covenant Renewal Documents from the ancient Near East hint at annual covenant renewal ceremonies, and according to Mowinckel they occurred on the new year’s day. According to the rules of the sect, the members of the sect are required to undergo the covenant ceremony every year 2.

In a yet unpublished version of the Damascus Covenant, the time fixed is the third month and it therefore seems that the covenant ceremony was performed on the holiday of Pentecost which at the time of the second Temple commemorated the Sinai Covenant.

The Greek-Hellenistic and Roman world provides explicit evidence on this matter. Recital of the Covenant The gatherings and assembly ceremonies discussed in the preceding paragraphs served the purpose of public proclamation of the covenantal stipulations. Reading of the stipulations of the treaty before the undertaking party is already known in the Hittite Vassal Treaties: ‘At regular intervals immuti immutimd shall they read it [the stipulations of the covenant] in the presence of the king of Mittani land and in the presence of the sons of the Hurri land’.

The copies of the Assyrian treaties were meant to be read as we may learn from the demonstrative pronouns within the documents such as: ‘the oath which is in this tablet’ mamit See my article in FT23 , p.

Milik, Ten Years of Discovery etc. SBL No. XIX ,1. For covenant renewal in religious communes of the Persian and Hellenistic periods see my article FT 23 , p. Weidner, Politische Dokumente aus Kleinasien, p.

This calls to mind the obligation to appear before the Lord three times every year In the biblical covenants we find explicit evidence that the text of the written covenant was read before the people: Then he took the book of the covenant nnnil ISO and read it aloud to the people’ Exod. Witnesses to the Covenant In the covenants the gods are called upon to serve as witnesses to the undertaking of obligation and the oath and in the case of a vassal treaty the gods of the administrator and taker of the oath alike are invited.

In the treaty between Suppiluliuma and Mattiwaza it is written: let them stand by.. On this matter see M. Tsevat, JBL 78 , pp. Nardt ID. MES , buratu PU. MES , tdmtu rabitu A. Weidner, ibid, For the 13 as warner cf. Seeligmann, SVT16 , pp. Dokumente, p. Weidner, ibid, op. Marduk and Zerpanit.. Witness all you gods of Ktk and Arpad, open your eyes to behold the treaty Ashur, the father of the gods..

Shamash, Adad.. SylL3 The divine witnesses listed in the oaths of the treaties occur also in general adjurations. Thus we find in an Assyrian incantation ritual: ‘I adjure you by Samas Surpu VIII In the Greek sources we find a formulaic oath containing similar elements. The common elements to all of the sources brought above are: In cases of confrontation between two human parties, such as the case of Samuel and Israel 1 Sam.

In Ps. And see my book Deuteronomy p. Iliad III ff. Murray, Loeb Class. Weinfeld, Leshonenu 36 , p. Natural phenomena as witnesses to the treaty: heaven and earth, mountains and hills, rivers, wells, lakes, the deep, etc.

Address to the divine witnesses to arise uzuzzu , hear, and see or open their eyes to the covenant. Emphasis on all the gods, be they male orfemale. In the Sefire treaty and in the treaty of Ashurnirari V, this is emphasized by explicit mentioning of the divine spouses along with each of the gods. The Greek and the Hellenistic treaties and the oaths of loyalty to the Roman Emperor start off by listing as witnesses: Zeus, the Sun and the Earth Aia, In the Hittite treaties the witnesses usually appear at the end, however we do find them in the beginning as well, such as in the treaty with the Kaskaeans see E.

The Greek oaths open with the divine witnesses and this is also the case with Esarhaddon’s adjuration of the vassals as well as the oath of the vassals themselves which opens: ‘may the gods look on’ etc. The Sefire treaty also commences with the divine witnesses. For Marduk and Ashur in the capacity of storm gods see my article in Th. Gaster Festschrift. JANES , pp. The oath is made before Shamash and is contingent on Shamash’s curses.

Shamash’s curse, whose main feature is trapping in a net susgal occupies an important position in the treaty of Eannatum the Vulture Stela from the third millenium BCE.

See Laroche, Ugaritica V, Ill f. XIX f: ‘and the Erinyes, that under earth take vengeance on men’. Concerning these witnesses in the biblical covenant see Weinfeld, DDS, p. Huffmon, JBL 78 , pp. The oath of ‘heaven and earth’ occurs already in the Sumerian sources the oath of Zianna – zikia, cf.

Draffkorn-Kilmer, UF 3 [], pp. Sefire 1 A. AfO 8 [], pp. Bengtson II, No. In the treaty between Phillip V and Hannibal we find formulae even closer to the oriental type, this is only natural since one of the parties is a Semite. The same expression appears in the Hittite treaties in connection with the divine witnesses: ‘may the gods stand together, hear and be witnesses’. The Blessing and Curse This clause is much expanded in the oriental treaties and occupies an important position in the Assyrian and Aramaic treaties.

It must be pointed out that, as opposed to the Hittite treaties which list both blessings and curses, the Assyrian treaties mention no blessing at all. The formulae contained in these documents specially emphasize cutting off the man, his seed, his house, and all he has should he break the covenant, and the opposite for his fulfilling all the stipulations. So we read in the Hittite treaties: If PN the vassal does not fulfill the words of this treaty and oath In later times there was an inclination to multiply divine witnesses, see P.

Siewert, DerEidvon Plataiai, p. Philo Spec. II, 1, 5 recommends swearing by the earth, sun, stars, heavens cxXXa yr v, rjAiov, aoTepas, oupavov , see, however, Mt. It is interesting to point out that Esarhaddon’s adjuration of the vassals starts off with Jupiter, Venus, Saturn etc. Invocations by heaven and earth were prevalent within the Jewish masses until late times.

See S. Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine For Semitic features in the text of this covenant see E. Bickerman, Amer. Jour, of Philology 73 , pp On the basis of the parallels cited it seems that we should read Xipvcov Reiske from Xinvr] meaning lake cf.

Walbank, Comm. Polybius II For a possible explanation see Weinfeld, DDS, p. If on the other hand he fulfills all the words of this treaty and oath which are written in this document, may the gods protect him together with his wives, his sons, his sons’ sons, his cattle, his house, his city and his country and all he has. But whoever does not observe the words of the inscription For example, in the oath opKia between the people of Thera and Cyrene in connection with the founding of the Cyrene colony we read that those assembled declared a curse: He who does not heed the words of this treaty, and even transgresses them, may he perish and may he melt like wax, he and his offspring and his property, and those who do heed the words of the covenant A shorter formula appears in other documents: ‘If I swear truthfully may all be very well for me iroAAa Kaya0’ but if I swear falsely may the opposite occur Tavcma.

I invoke a complete curse of destruction.. See Weidner, Pol. In the treaties between Supiluliuma and Mattiwaza the series of blessings and curses is longer. See Weidner,] Pol. In the ancient Near East as well as in Greece the oath Akk. See my article in JAOS 93 , p. For reference see above note OGI, , 69, Bengtson III Thus for example we read in the Blessing and Curse section of the Deuteronomic covenant: ‘Blessed shall be the fruit of your womb, the fruit of your soil and the fruit of your cattle, the calving of your herd and the lambing of your flock’ More elaborate are the formulae found in the prologue to Deuteronomy 7.

The Lord will ward off from you all sickness. These formulae and especially the reference to sickness and sterility actually have their roots in the ancient epilogue to the Covenant Code.

And I will remove sickness from your midst. No woman in your land shall miscarry or be barren. Thus we find in the amphictyonic oath quoted by Aischines: that their land bear no fruit, that their wives bear no children..

Si s[cie]ns fallo.. Dessau Inscript. Herodotus VI 86 3 : ‘Yet an oath has a son, nameless, without hands or feet, but swift to pursue until he has seized and destroyed utterly the race and house of the perjured but the one who keeps his oath, his children are happier’.

For the curse as pursuing and overtaking cf. This concept of the curse which pursues, overtakes, and speedily destroys is found in Mesopotamian sources and appears in the Hittite treaties. See M. Weinfeld, DDS, pp. For the dependence of Deut.

The Loyalty Oath in the Ancient Near East 27 And in the oath of the Athenians against the Barbarians: if I keep what is written in the oath, let my polis be without sickness.. This curse is actually found in the most ancient documents. For example, among the curses found at the end of the inscription of Yahdun-lim, King of Mari, we find: ‘and may the dead not accept him ‘ muti aj imhur, Syria 32 [], p.

Dramatization of the Curses In the ancient world it was customary to accompany the curses with dramatic acts intended to illustrate the curses.

Thus, for example, in the oath of the Hittite soldiers wax is melted to illustrate the melting of an infringer of the treaty, salt is scattered to illustrate the stoppage of his seed, barley is ground while threats are made that this is how the treaty-breaker’s bones are to be ground, women’s clothes, a spindle and a mirror are displayed so as to illustrate the fate of the treaty-breaker – that he shall turn into a woman; a blind and a deaf man are brought and threats are made that this will be the fate of the infringer, and so on.

In the Aramaic Sefire treaty we hear about illustrations of curses such as: burning wax figurines in fire, breaking bows and arrows, gouging out eyes from wax figurines, cutting up a calf, etc. In the vassal oaths to Esarhaddon we also find in the curses use of wax figurines, breaking bows, gouging out eyes, and displaying a spindle, but they are supplemented by other illustrations. Siewert, DerEidvon Plataiai , pp. VTE Line etc. Weidner, AFO 8 , pp.

For this reading cf. Ehrlich, Randglossen zurHebr. Bibel IV, p. For example, we find in the oath of the Hittite soldiers: ‘Just as this after it is put in the pan melts, may anyone who breaks the treaty melt’ I.

In the first curse in the Sefire treaty ‘As this wax figurine is consumed by fire, thus Arpad.. As this wax is consumed by fire, thus Matti’el shall be consumed by fire’. And in the vassals’ oath to Esarhaddon: ‘Just as one burns a wax figurine salmu sa iskuri in fire Such a curse and its illustration are found in the pact between the people of Thera and the settlers of Cyrene which were inscribed on a stela.

They moulded wax figurines and burned them, and all those gathered, men, women and children recited curses: ‘May those who do not heed the words of the covenant and infringe them, melt and perish like this figurine, they and their seed, and their property Covenantal Sacrifices Sacrifices in connection with covenant making were very widespread in Greece Priest, JNES 23 , 48ff.

Stengel, Hermes 49 , p. For a Hittite ceremony in which the soldiers pass through pieces of animals and a cut man see O. Masson, RHR , pp. The origin of the rite itself seems to be anchored in some kind of protective ceremony, see E. Droit Orient. On the other hand the ceremony adds some sacred force to the pledge ibid.

Gaster, Myth, Legend and Custom in the 97 , pp. Forrefer, seen. That a figurine is spoken about may be learned from the continuation: WT1I7C? See references above, n. This parallel has been noticed by E. Bikerman, Arch. Picard, Rev. However in the meantime the clause from Esarhaddon’s treaty has been discovered. Stengel, Die Griech. Kultusalterttimer3, Handbuch der Klassischen Altertumswiss. Nilsson, Gesch. Religion3 , Band I, pp.

Here, the warring princes obligate themselves by oath to destroy Thebai: they slaughter a bull and collect its blood and swear. In Israel and in Greece three separate animals were chosen for covenantal sacrifices, in Greece TpiTTUEs , a bull, goat, and a boar, or bull, ram, and boar, and in Genesis: a calf, a goat, and a ram. Eternal Validity of the Oath The binding force of the oath is expressed in Mesopotamia, in the Bible and in Greece by means of identical terms.

For sacrificial elements in the ‘covenant between the pieces’ in Gen. For the gradual diminishing of the sacrificial element in the covenant see E.

Bikerman, art. Weinfeld, DAS, ff. This parallel is discussed by E. Kutsch, FT 23 , pp. II 2,9. Robertson Smith, The Religion of the Semites2 , pp.

Kultusaltertumer3 , p. The birds were not cut up, as we may see from v. The holding of the iepa and the OTrAayxva: see P. Stengel, Hermes 49 , pp. The Akkadian expression is nikissa lapatu RA 18 [], 25 See CAD L, p.

Nilsson, Geschichte dergriech. Religion3 , I. Droit Orient 5, p. Compare also the phrase in the Elamite documents: ‘they have sworn, they have touched the head of their god’ cf. CAD L lapatu 1 b and the oath taken by the members of the private shrine at Philadelphia see above n.

V 11; VI 25 , 6cp6c ioxupa Aeschines 2. In a context similar to that of Aeschines amphictyonic oath we find in Judg. JAOS 93 [], pp. Erecting Monuments in Commemoration of the Covenant Commemoration of a pact by erecting stelas is already attested in Mesopotamia in the third millenium BCE cf.

Kramer, The Sumerian 3 10 f and is known from the Bible Gen. All of the above-mentioned finds indicate that there is a common, formal basis to loyalty oaths, treaties and general adjurations in the ancient world. The formal similarity between oaths and treaties in East and West is so great that it seems to be impossible not to assume an eastern influence on the west Greece and Rome in this area. Even were we to assume a chance independent formation of the formulae and ceremonies we would be forced to admit that the oriental treaties have much in common with the occidental ones and this common background can help us to clarify various problems involved.

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We understand the unique challenges of being a medical CMO, and we know what it takes to get medical devices right every time. Contact us to make your next product launch a success. Positioning peristaltic rollers allows more precise dispensing Accurate dispensing affects a great deal of drug development and delivery. Many of these compounds are composed of proteins or synthetic molecular chains that are extremely fragile and highly susceptible to shear. In addition, setup time must be reduced, and maintaining the product within a dispensing tube must meet or exceed safety and contamination concerns.

For these reasons, peristaltic pumps have found wide application. A basic three roller peristaltic pump draws liquid in bottom tube and expels it through the top tube. The design uses a compressible polymer tube to hold the fluid that requires dispensing.

The arrangement also allows pumping aggressive chemicals, slurries with a high solid content, and other materials when it is critical to isolate the fluid from the environment. However, the peristaltic pump suffers from pulsations because its rollers move on and off a pressure shoe as the tube is compressed. The pulsations plotted in 3 Roller Dispense can be reduced by adding more rollers to a peristaltic pump. But there is a better idea. If the peristaltic pump can start each dispense with one roller in the same starting position, the amount of fluid-dispensing variance can be greatly reduced.

The drive motor can also be used with other pump systems, such as with the Cole Parmer Miniflex peristaltic pump. The three roller Miniflex pump demonstrates the same performance from roller positioning and no-roller positioning. The wiring diagram was used for the setup that provided the half-revolution indexes of the previous image.

The volume versus dispense cycle — the amount of liquid pushed out by one roller — varies with time. It is possible to greatly reduce the variation in the amount of fluid dispensed when the peristaltic pump can start each dispense with one roller in the same starting position. The dispensing data comes from a WatsonMarlow peristaltic pump with and without roller positioning. A solution for fluid accuracy The Lexium MDrive, an integrated solution, includes signal inputs and outputs for roller positioning.

The design allows dispense volumes made from multiple revolutions plus some fraction of a revolution. Roller positioning takes into consideration the fraction of a revolution and ignores the complete revolutions. External valves are used so the peristaltic pump can dispense fluid and then control the starting position of the next peristaltic roller without dispensing. Connecting a Lexium MDrive motor according to the accompanying electrical diagram lets it dispense and then control the valves so the rollers are positioned to the same starting point for each dispense cycle.

This allows dispensing a precise and repeatable quantity. When the number of peristaltic rollers does not divide evenly into the number of microstepping-motor counts, a round-off error occurs.

For example: A threeroller system will not divide without a fraction into 51, microsteps per revolution. The number of steps between rollers would be 17, The motors will only recognize 17, steps for each of two rollers and need to add 2 steps to the final roller, making it 17, Each dispense must end with the total movement of rollers equaling 51, steps per revolution. Each move during the dispense cycle can be verified by using the motor encoder.

There are up to 20 software-selectable resolutions within the Lexium MDrive. A few pump and valve setups The circuit described in A in A few pump and valve setups, uses an external pinch valve as a normally open dispense and normally closed position valve. One of the rollers is positioned relative to the encoder Z pulse. The pump dispense is selected and fluid would then be dispensed. A drip retention is used to bring the fluid back into the tube so that closing the dispense valve does not cause a drip.

The dispense valve is then closed, and the position valve opened. The next roller is moved into the same position as previously used for dispensing. This will result in a small amount of fluid waste. After the first roller position move, the next roller can be positioned either in a positive or negative direction, minimizing fluid waste. Using the various directions for roller positioning minimizes fluid waste.

The system shown in B represents a two-tube peristaltic system in which the rollers are offset and the two tubes combined. A six-roller system effectively becomes a roller system, minimizing pulsations. The pressure shoes could be different, so it is recommended that one tube-and-shoe combination be used for roller positioning. For system in figure C, a robotic arm would move the pipette tip to a microtitre plate. The tip just enters the fluid and track its level while fluid is removed.

The tip then moves from the fluid and drip retention is applied before moving it. At the delivery position, fluid is removed and blown out by positioning the roller to the starting point. The tip could be exchange and the process repeats. This set up was used for other experiments but yielded similar results for roller positioning and no-roller positioning.

The on-and-off switch allows a standby configuration. The motor drive is coupled to the pump using a Helical coupling, or equivalent, so that reverses do not adversely affect performance. The mounting block between the motor and pump controls heat transfer. Two-roller configuration — Watson-Marlow pump The plots in Volume versus dispense cycle show an embodiment of a system that uses a Lexium series 34 ac motor drive. A small tube was used along with the Bio-Chem pinch valves and a similar coupling.

Nippon Pulse manufactures custom. The blue line, at about 0. We can create custom options for you whether you need one motor or thousands per month. We offer superior custom prototyping with fast delivery.

Our engineers have extensive product knowledge and can consult on your application from the entire motion control system standpoint. Another example of Volume versus Dispense cycle comes from a pump with 1. The blue line is from a system with roller positioning. Summary Various pumps, valves, and motors can be used for roller positioning, depending on the application. It should be noted that starting in the same position works extremely well for through-the-pump applications as well as aspirations into a pipette tip or other device such as a flow cell.

BST offers roller positioning for any peristaltic-pump system that needs greater dispensing accuracy. BST has filed a United States patent for the use of roller positioning. The motor systems can also be configured to use an optical or proximity device for control for a correct roller position. We deliver innovative products of the highest quality, and offer exceptional service and support. MediSpec MPC connectors are examples of off-the-shelf connectors that address issues of off-the-shelf shortcomings.

It will be available in a range of diameters including D1 up to eight contacts , D2 up to 17 contacts, pictured , D3 up to 35 contacts and D4 up to 59 contacts , plus four keying positions and six color options for each diameter. The effectiveness and reliability of healthcare devices and systems rely on the robust design, engineering, and performance of their underlying electronics.

As medical equipment manufacturers work to reduce device cost, without sacrificing reliability, connector choice is one of many decisions that require striking a balance. A wide range of connector options make the choice more challenging. For instance, a custom or hybrid connector may be appropriate in particular applications, but these would typically require higher upfront engineering and tooling fabrication time and expense.

Fully customized designs are somewhat costly, but allow for almost any required specification. A hybrid connector, on the other hand, is essentially an offthe-shelf connector with custom features, such as an overmolded grip or strain relief. Design and tooling costs are lower, and a hybrid has the look and feel of a custom connector. However, when developing a list of power connector requirements, design engineers should not rule out viable and more economical offthe-shelf connectors.

Of course there are a few things to consider when selecting or specifying a connector. Some overly tight, off-the-shelf connectors are a risk in medical care environments.

Conversely, loose or unstable connections in some devices are also a risk in healthcare environments. Moisture creates another set of problems. A solution would be to pot the connectorcontact interface for both plug and receptacle, to prevent ingress of flux into the contact zone during soldering, as well as to prevent ingress through the pin field during use in a hospital or clinical setting.

Because moisture protection is a consideration in medical connectors, an additional IPrated sealing option should be available to provide protection to a splash-proof specification. MediSpec Medical Plastic. A checklist of specs for a medical connector We suggest specifying these features before selecting a connector for a medical device. Identify the: Number and type of contacts pins or sockets and specifications for each Cable configuration power, ECG, defibrillator, analog, digital bandwidth, pneumatic, fiber optic, or combination of two or more Cable diameter, materials, and shape Circular MPC connectors and cable assemblies meet stringent industry standards and provide exceptional performance at a fraction of the cost of machinedcontact systems and custom circular connectors.

MediSpec MPC connectors balance the need for high mating cycles and low mating forces. Employing the proven low-force helix, stamped-and-formed contact design, the MPC connectors ensure a reliable electrical interface over multiple insertions. The simple, push-pull engagement mechanism provides easy handling, even when wearing surgical gloves.

These will provide a quick and easy means to build early prototypes of new medical devices. Regulatory and environmental ratings RoHS, REACH, ISO , UL Strain relief requirements Shielding requirements for connector and cable Voltage and current requirements Space and size constraints, a preferred connector diameter Ingress protection IP rating Number of mate and un-mate cycles required Locking mechanism, when required Keying requirements Required mate and un-mate force Cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization requirements Color, logos, markings, and serialization.

In modern medical practice, efficiency is key. Newer technologies allow for the mobility of medical equipment, letting personnel bring medical supplies and machines closer to patients, whether they are in the emergency room or an emergency vehicle. But with this improved accessibility, how can hospitals and healthcare facilities ensure that valuable medical equipment and narcotics are properly secured? Making patient-care supplies available from mobile medical equipment while protecting them against unauthorized access is a challenge hospital administrators face on a daily basis.

Pharmaceuticals, biologics, and other valuable or hazardous medical materials stored within mobile carts and cabinets must be locked away when not in use to prevent theft, or idle or malicious tampering. Finding a practical way to secure these items is imperative. Engineers designing for the medical environment, from hospital rooms to ambulances, are equally aware of the challenge.

Intelligent electronic locking mechanisms Integrating intelligent electronic locking mechanisms into mobile medical equipment, such as medication dispensing carts, can significantly improve security and accountability in healthcare settings. Concealed electronic locks and latches, when combined with access-control devices such as digital keypads or RFID devices, provide an effective solution for upgrading the security of existing carts, cabinets, and workstations.

Successful electronic access systems comprise four basic elements: An access control device, an electronic lock, remote monitoring, and manual override.

Consistent operation dependents on a high-quality, reliable electronic lock. The associated access controller, or user interface, validates the user credential and signals the cabinet to open.

Once the electronic signal triggers access, a digital signature is created and archived for an audit trail, and can be accessed locally or remotely. Electronic locks can operate through a variety of access control devices, such as digital keypads, Bluetooth controllers, RFID, and biometric readers. Audit trail capability and regulatory compliance When controlling valuable pharmaceuticals and potentially dangerous medical supplies such as narcotics or biohazards, audit trails are critical for tracking access and inventory.

Hospital dispensing and storage equipment, refrigerators and warming cabinets for biologics and IV fluids, and blood banks all present security risks. Security of confidential patient information is also a priority, with medical facilities www. Intelligent and concealed electronic locks offer a unique and efficient way to control access and maintain security of valuable information and medical supplies.

Electronic locking devices can provide a record of which user gained access, when, and for how long. With complete control of credentialing, a hospital administrator can have indisputable evidence of when records were accessed, and by whom. The alternative — manual recordkeeping — is often less convenient. A digital record can facilitate production of audit trail reports and can assist with investigations of discrepancies or potential security breaches.

With an electronic access system in place, electronic credentials may be easily granted or revoked, eliminating key management issues.

A solution for security The security of mobile medical equipment applies to carts and equipment within a medical facility, as well as to mobile providers of healthcare services. Specialty vehicles such as ambulances, mobile medical aid units, and home healthcare service providers operate under the same requirements as hospitals with regard to tracking medications and supplies.

Unfortunately, these entities may experience greater security challenges than hospitals. Criminals are known to target emergency vehicles in search of narcotics, entering a vehicle while the medical team is attending to an emergency. In many cases, EMS personnel may not be aware of theft until vehicle supplies are inventoried later.

Shift changes among emergency workers makes controlling access even more difficult. Depending on the needed level of access control, there are many options for securing medical equipment and supplies on the go. They include:. New or existing storage cabinets within a vehicle are easily outfitted with these battery-operated, audit-trail-capable locks. For faster, easier control, intelligent electronic rotary locks connected to an RF controller can be used to open or close multiple doors simultaneously with a single key fob click.

Simplified electronic access control A self-contained electronic locking system is a simple and cost-effective option for protecting new enclosures or upgrading existing equipment. Self-contained solutions typically incorporate an access-control device, electronic lock, electrical override and power supply into a single unit.

This solution installs easily with drop-in assemblies that can be mounted into standard panel preps without additional wiring, and feature simple battery operation. Self-contained electronic access systems work with existing building security systems across the medical facility to control access, in that the same ID badges used with an RFID-based, card-access system for building access can be used with cabinets, carts, and equipment across the medical facility.

Each time a cabinet equipped with a selfcontained solution is opened using an RFID badge, it stores a signal that confirms and logs access.

In addition, audit trail data can be downloaded onto a separate utility key, which can then be read via any computer USB.

This digital record of information can then be used to demonstrate compliance with regulatory requirements. Consider electronic access Installing electronic locks with audit-trail capabilities can be a simple, economical and highly effective upgrade that can improve security and accountability in medical supply containment. Monitoring and controlling pharmaceuticals, biologics, and other valuable or hazardous materials that are at risk of theft or tampering, as well as HIPAA-protected data, is easily achieved by implementing the appropriate electronic access solution.

Electronic access solutions combine intelligent locking and access control to protect patient information and medical supplies, offering an effective solution for safeguarding sensitive materials a healthcare setting. Intelligent electronic locks offer a unique and efficient way to control access and maintain security of valuable information and medical supplies. If the PCD can be deactivated or sterilized, then a device of lesser resistance would also be considered sterile.

The final step in a validation process is a performance qualification, which validates that products exposed to the sterilization process meet the required sterility assurance level SAL. The common approach for EO sterilization validation. Additionally, a full cycle is performed to demonstrate that the defined cycle is capable of maintaining the process parameters for the entirety of the routine production cycle. The equipment and process EO chambers are basically pressure vessels which work under sub-atmospheric conditions i.

Most sterilization processes are batch operations. Some of the smaller test chambers are in the 9-ft3 range, but larger industrial units handle 30 pallets, a full load for a tractor trailer. EO sterilization proceeds through a three-phase process. Because the product is in packages, the heat and humidity condition the packaging material so the gas can penetrate easier. EO chambers come in a variety of sizes from smaller than this one to those that hold palletts of products. Validating a process requires killing a sample of bacteria placed in the most difficult to reach nooks in a package or produduct.

The second purpose is to condition the microorganisms on the device, as well as the Biological Indicator BI used to measure the process, for gassing. The BI contains a minimum of one million organisms of the EO sterilization indicator organism Bacillus atrophaeus, a spore-forming organism.

One is a dormant state in which they are called endospores. The organism forms a shell-like structure to protect itself until a nutrient-rich environment becomes available, at which time it can sporulate, grow, and reproduce. When the organism is in this second state of growth and reproduction, we call it the vegetative state.

Endospores are so durable some have been pulled off of ancient mummies making them at least 4, years old. After the pre-conditioning phase, operators quickly load the product into the sterilization chamber so as to not lose heat from preconditioning.

Typical cycles pull deep vacuums down to 1 psia. Depending on the cycle and product, there might be a few nitrogen washes during the initial stages to flush the residual oxygen.

This is more common in shallow vacuums of 6 psia or greater. From there, the process goes into a dwell state, typically 3 to 5 hours, of static conditions in which the gas is allowed to penetrate deep into the load and devices. To remove most of the EO gas before opening the chamber, the load is washed with an inert gas such as nitrogen or steam, until most of the EO is out.

Once below flammable concentrations, air is typically used for additional washes. In general, sterilization validation is required to demonstrate that the devices are free of viable microorganisms. As a first step in the validation process, the resistance of the device must be determined. There are two ways to verify the resistance, Littley says. In theory, the process should kill a given population of that organism. Naked, by themselves, the organisms are not difficult to kill.

Another approach to validating the process is via a process-challenge device PCD , which provides an additional avenue for products which are expensive or not easily accessible. Instead, an easy-tohandle, inexpensive PCD, like a coupon, is.

Bi-Link helps product engineers solve complex design challenges to reduce lifecycle costs and speed time to market. Common PCD configuration might be a sealed a polybag, sealed tubing, or 5cc to 10cc capped nonvented syringe, with a BI placed inside. The PCD is then used in the validation process instead of the inoculated device. How often to revalidate a product? Revalidation would not always be necessary for a design change. For example, if a design change increases an inner diameter, making a pathway easier for a gas to infiltrate, a requalification would not be required.

However, once the validation process is defined and the device and sterilization process does not change, there is no reason to revalidate. This can be a pen-and-paper-change assessment, or actual testing. Motors make spectrophotometer foolproof Scientists working in genomics and proteomics need results at the touch of a button, so they can set about their real work — drug discovery, advanced diagnostics, understanding the stuff of life.

When DeNovix set out to develop a spectrophotometer for life science analysis, they focused on designing a fast, simple, foolproof instrument that could extract accurate, repeatable output in seconds. In spectrophotometry, the amount and wavelength of light absorbed by a sample reveals the type and concentration of molecules present. Microvolume spectrophotometers such as the DS let researchers obtain fast and accurate results, use the minimum amount of sample, and move more rapidly to answering the questions the research is trying to address.

For the optimal absorbance measurement, an optical path length OPL must be scaled for the size and characteristics of each sample. Unfortunately, the conversion factors typically used in these calculations assume a mm OPL. As a result, the OPL must be adjusted for each sample and measurement, then scaled to provide the true value. The more accurate and repeatable the OPL, the more accurate the results of the analysis. The DS spectrophotometer delivers high-dynamic-range measurements with the touch of the screen.

All photos from DeNovix.

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